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EXAMINING  AND 
GRADING  GRAINS 


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EXAMINING  AND  GRADING 
GRAINS 


BY 

T.  LYTTLETON  LYON,  Ph.D. 

Professor  of  Agronomy,  University  of  Nebraska 


E.  G.  MONTGOMERY,  B.Sc. 

Aiui'mt  Professor  of  Agronomy,  University  of  Nebraska 


GINN  &  COMPANY 

BOSTON  •  NEW  YORK  •  CHICAGO  •  LONDON 


Copyright,  1907,  by 
t.  lyttleton  1.yon  and  e.  g.  montgobiery 


ALL  RIGHTS   RESERVED 
77.3 


QEfte   gttftenatum   gregj 

GINN   &   COMPANY  •  PRO- 
PRIETORS •  BOSTON  •  U.S.A. 


PREFACE 

Two  years  ago  we  published  for  the  convenience  of  our 
students  the  exercises  used  in  our  •  field-crop  laboratory. 
These  exercises  seemed  to  meet  the  needs  of  other  teachers, 
and  during  the  past  year  a  number  of  the  agricultural  col- 
leges and  a  few  normal  schools  have  used  the  publication. 

No  laboratory  manual  in  field  crops  having  been  published 
previous  to  this  time,  and  comparatively  little  having  been 
done  towards  developing  a  systematic  laboratory  course  in 
this  subject,  it  was  thought  that  a  course  might  be  worked 
out  that  would  be  of  at  least  temporary  usefulness,  and 
would  make  for  uniformity  in  laboratory  instruction,  by 
getting  the  opinions  and,  as  far  as  practicable,  the  methods 
of  those  giving  such  instruction,  and  incorporating  these  in 
a  new  edition  of  "  Examining  and  Grading  Grains."  This  has 
been  done,  and  we  wish  to  express  our  thanks  for  counsel 
and  material  contributed  by  Professor  Alfred  Atkinson, 
Professor  C.  P.  Bull,  Professor  F.  C.  Burtis,  Professor  G.  A. 
Crosthwait,  Professor  James  A.  Foord,  Professor  A.  N.  Hume, 
Professor  Thomas  F.  Hunt,  Professor  F.  S.  Johnston,  Profes- 
sor A.  G.  McCall,  Professor  M.  F.  Miller,  Professor  W.  H. 
Olin,  Professor  George  Severance,  Professor  V.  M.  Shoesmith, 
Professor  A.  L.  Stone,  Professor  A.  M.  Ten  Eyck,  Professor 
A.  T.  Wiancko. 

The  exercises  are  planned  to  cover  about  one  year's  labora- 
tory work  of  four  hours  per  week.     The  work  is  intended 

SEW 


L 


If 


iv  PREFACE 

fur  agricultural  colleges  and  well-equipped  normal  or  high 
schools.  Most  of  the  exercises  are  easily  modified  to  suit 
local  conditions  or  the  equipment  of  the  school. 

It  has  not  seemed  best  to  discuss  in  the  text  methods  of 
teaching  the  subject.  We  have,  instead,  prepared  a  pamphlet 
giving  suggestions  for  collecting  material  and  conducting  the 
work.     This  can  be  secured  from  the  publishers. 

THE  AUTHORS 
Lincoln,  Nebraska 


CONTENTS 

WHEAT  Page 

Classification  of  Species  and  Varieties 1 

Laboratory  Study  of  Characters     3 

Terms  for  describing  Wheat 4 

Outline  for  describing  Wheat 8 

Examining  the  Quality  of  Wheat 9 

Report  Card  (Wheat) 9 

Notes  on  the  Quality  of  Wheat 10 

Judging  Wheat 14 

Score  Card  for  Wheat 14 

Explanation  of  Score  Card 14 

Determining  the  Gluten  Content  of  Wheat 17 

Commercial  Grading  of  Wheat 17 

Wheat  Inspection  Rules 18 

Testing  Wheat  for  Purity 20 

Testing  Wheat  for  Viability 20 

Study  of  Variation   in   Wheat  Plants 21 

Bluestone  or  Copper-Sulphate  Treatment,  etc 22 

CORN 

Classification  of  Species 25 

Varieties  of  Corn 26 

Laboratory  Study  of  Species  and  of  Characters     ...  26 

Examination  of  Species 26 

Terms  for  describing  Corn 27 

Outline  for  describing  Corn 32 

Comparative  Study  of  Characters 32 

Judging  Corn 33 

Points  to  be  Observed 34 

Score  Card  for  Corn,  No.  1 42 

Rules  for  Judging   Exhibits  of  Corn  (Score  Card  No.  1).  42 

Score  Card  for  Corn,  No.  2 45 

Rules  for  Judging  Exhibits  of  Corn  (Score  Card  No.  2).  45 

Testing  Corn  for  Viability 47 

v 


vi  CONTENTS 

Page 

Commercial  Grading  of  Corn 48 

Notes  on  the  Quality  of  Corn 48 

Corn  Inspection   Ri  les 49 

OATS 

Classification  of  Species 51 

Laboratory  Study  of  Characters 53 

Terms  for  describing  Oats 53 

Outline  for  describing  Oats 50 

A  Study  of  the  Mature  Oat  Plant 57 

Examining  the  Quality  of  Oats 58 

Report  Card   (Oats) 59 

Notes  on  the  Quality  of  Oats 59 

Judging  Oats 01 

Score  Card  for  Oats 01 

Explanation  of  Score  Card 02 

Commercial  Grading  of  Oats   , 03 

Oat  Inspection  Rules  ....,., 03 

Testing  Oats  for  Purity.     ,                          65 

Testing   Oats  for  Viability             65 

Hot-Water  Treatment,  etc.      .     c Of 5 

Formalin  Treatment,  etc.     .           (50 

BARLEY 

Classification  of  Species  and  Varieties 08 

Laboratory  Study  of  Characters 70 

Terms  for  describing  Barleys 70 

Outline  for  describing  Barleys 74 

Examining  the  Quality  of  Barley 75 

Report  Card  (Barley) 75 

Notes  on  the  Quality  of  Barley 7(5 

Judging  Barley 78 

S<  ore  Card  for  Barley 78 

Explanation  of  Score  Card 78 

Commercial  Grading  of  Barley 80 

Barley  Inspection  Rules 81 

Testing  Barley  for  Purity  and  Viability 82 

Testing  Uniformity  of  Germination  in  Barley      ....  82 

Report  on  Germination  <>f  Barleys ,82 


CONTENTS  vii 

HAY  PLANTS  Page 

Laboratory  Study  of  Characters 83 

Outline  for  describing  Grasses 83 

Commercial  Grading  of  Hay 84 

Hay  and  Stra^vv  Inspection  Rules 84 

Identification  of  Clover  and  Grass  Seeds 86 

Key  for  Identification  of  Clover  Seeds 87 

Key  for  Identification  of  Grass  Seeds 87 

Key  for  Identification  of  Millet  Seeds 90 

SEED  TESTING 

Apparatus  for  Germinating  Seeds 94 

Homemade  Germinators 94 

A  Study  of  the  Germination  of  Sleds 90 

Determining  the  Pure  and  Germinable  Seeds,  etc.        .     .  97 

Suggested  Form  for  Report 98 

Determination  of  Weight  per  Bushei 98 

Practice  Work  with  Tester 99 

Test  for  Moisture  in  Grain 99 

Legal  Weights  of  Seeds  per  Bushel 100 


EXAMINING  AND  GRADING 
GRAINS 

SECTION  I  — WHEAT 

CLASSIFICATION   OF  SPECIES  AND  VARIETIES 

Wheat  belongs  to  the  family  of  plants  known  as  the 
Gramituoe,  which  includes  all  of  our  cereal  crops  and 
meadow  grasses.  It  is  classified  into  several  species  and 
varieties,  founded  on  distinct  differences. 

All  of  the  Graminece  are  readily  distinguished  by  having 
only  one  seed  leaf  and  arc  technically  known  as  monocoty- 
ledons. 

Wheats  seem  to  be  most  properly  classified  into  species 
and  races  as  follows  : 

Triticivm  monococcum  (1-grained  wheat):  spikes  compact, 
spikelets  3-flowered  but  1-grained,  bearded  ;  very  old,  belongs 
to  Stone  Age ;  grown  in  Spain,  Germany,  Switzerland ;  not 
much  of  a  bread  wheat. 

Triticum  Polonicum  (Polish  wheat) :  large,  open  heads,  spike- 
lets  2-to-3-seeded,  bearded ;  seeds  long,  bright,  and  glossy ; 
cultivated  in  parts  of  eastern  Europe  and  northern  Africa. 

Triticum  sativum,  divided  into  races  as  follows : 

Tr.  sat.  vulgare  (common  wheat) :  4-flowered  spikelets, 
3-grained,  both  bearded  and  beardless ;  our  common 


f  HOf  ERTT  IM& 
N.  C.  Stote  C«lfeft 


2  WHEAT 

bread  wheats,  many  varieties,  almost  exclusively  grown 
in  this  country. 

Tr.  sat.  compact  a  in  ("  Hedgehog  wheat,"  "  Dwarf 
wheat") :  spikes  short,  dense,  distinctly  4-sided,  both 
bearded  and  beardless ;  grown  in  Switzerland  and 
neighboring  region,  also  in  Turkestan  and  Chile. 

Tr.  sett,  turgidum  ("English  wheat,"  "Egyptian  wheat"): 
spikes  large,  dense,  4-sided,  2-to-3-seeded,  bearded; 
largely  grown  in  Mediterranean  countries,  also  in 
Egypt,  England,  and  Germany. 

Tr.  sat.  durum  (true  bearded,  or  hard  wheats) :  spikelets 
M-to-4-seeded,  long,  stiff  awns  ;  seeds  large,  bright,  and 
glossy.  This  race  comprises  the  so-called  "  macaroni  " 
wheats,  which  are  at  present  being  extensively  tested 
in  the  semi-arid  portions  of  the  country.  They  are 
widely  grown  in  eastern  Europe  and  northern  Africa. 

Tr.  sat.  Spelta  (spelt) :  spikes  long  and  very  loose,  darkish 
colored  when  ripe,  spikelets  3-seeded  at  base,  2  at  top 
of  spike ;  chaff  adheres  to  grain ;  little  grown  in  this 
country  ;  at  home  in  the  mountain  regions  of  Europe 
and  Asia. 

Tr.  sat.  dicoccum  (Emmer) :  spikelets  2-seeded,  rather 
compactly  arranged  in  2  rows,  generally  dark  colored, 
grain  very  hard,  inclosed  in  chaff ;  little  grown  in  this 
country;  more  common  in  central  Europe. 

The  varieties  of  Triticum  durum,  commonly  known  as 
"  macaroni  wheats  "  because  of  the  excellent  quality  for  the 
manufacture  of  macaroni  and  similar  pastes,  are  considered 
strongly  drought-resistant  and  give  promise  of  becoming  valu- 
able wheats  for  the  semi-arid  regions  of  this  country. 


LABORATORY  STUDY  OF  CHARACTERS 


Emmer  (T.  dicoccum),  commonly  confused  with  spelt,  also 
gives  promise  of  a  wide  usefulness.  Of  these  wheats  we  are 
principally  concerned  with  the 
varieties  of  Triticum  sativum 
vulgare. 


LABORATORY  STUDY 
CHARACTERS 


OF 


Let  the  teacher  provide  each 
student  with  specimens  of  the 


Beak 


ff&Cheek 

\jjr Suture 
Cross  section         Empty  Glume 

Fig.  1.    On  the  left  is  shown  a  whole  wheat  spike.    On  the  right  the 
structure  of  a  spikelet  is  illustrated  and  the  various  parts  named 

types  included  in  the  ahove  classification,  and  try  to  identify 
the  specimens  by  use  of  the  descriptions  given.    After  this 


4  WHEAT 

the  student  should  proceed  to  study  these  wheats,  and  as 
many  specimens  of  native  wheats  as  he  can  obtain,  according 
to  the  following  method.1 

Drawings.  Make  a  drawing  from  a  spike  of  each  of  the 
types  as  follows : 

First,  the  spike  as  a  whole  ;  then,  removing  a  spikelet,  draw 
this  entire,  showing  the  imbricated  view.  Then  dissect  the 
spikelet,  drawing  each  part  out  separately,  being  careful  to 
arrange  the  parts  in  their  proper  relative  position. 

The  method  of  cross  fertilizing  wheats  may  now  be  easily 
explained. 

The  ivheat  spike  and  descriptive  terms.  The  following  is 
a  list  of  descriptive  terms  which  apply  to  the  wheat  spike. 
The  student  is  supplied  with  two  or  three  spikes  of  the 
wheat  to  be  described,  and  proceeds  to  fill  out  the  blank 
used  in  describing  wheats,  using  the  list  of  descriptive  terms 
as  a  reference. 

Terms  for  describing  Wheat 
Spike 

f  Beardless  (Fig.  2,  11). 

1.  \   Partly  bearded  (Fig.  2,  C). 
Bearded  (Fig.  2,  .1). 

Length,  inches. 


'  Very  open  (Fig.  2,  B). 
Open. 
3.  «j  Medium  (Fig.  1,  A). 
Com pac t  (Fig.  2 ,  A). 
^  Crowded  (Fig.  2,  C,  tip). 


Refers  to  how  closely  the  spike- 
lets  are  set  together. 


1  All  specimens  of  grain  in  head  will  be  in  better  condition  for  study 
if  placed  in  a  moist  chamber,  or  between  pieces  of  moist  paper  for  a  few 
hours,  in  order  to  toughen  the  parts. 


LABORATORY  STUDY  OF  CHARACTERS 


Shapt 


f  Tapering  toward  apex.     Heads  which  taper  gradually  from 
the  middle  toward  the  tip. 
Tapering  both  ways.    Heads  which  are  spindle  shaped  or 


f  Sterile    spikelets,    1 


2,  3,  4. 

3.  -<j  Sterile  spikelets  at 

tip  and  base  of 
spike. 


I 


Color 


largest  in  middle 
^    Uniform  (Fig.  2,  A).     Heads  same  diameter  throughout 
Clubbed  (Fig.  2,  C). 
Heads  larger  at  tip 
than  below. 


'  Square.     Refers  to 
cross  section. 
Flattened  with  spike- 
lets (Fig.  1,  .4). 
Diameter  of  head 
through  spike- 
lets least. 
Flattened   across 
spikelets    (Fig. 

2,  A). 

Diameter  through 
spikelets  great- 
est. 


1.  4 


Whitish. 

Yellow. 

Yellowish  brown. 

Rosy. 

Red. 

Bluish. 

Brown. 

Black. 


Fig.  2.  Three  types  of  wheat  heads  :  A, 
macaroni  wheat ;  J5,  a  common  form  of 
awnless  winter  wheat;  C,  club  wheat 


6 
Awns 


WHEAT 


f  Long,  4  in.  or  more  in  length. 
1.  s  Medium,  2  in.  to  4  in.  in  length. 
L  Short,  2  in.  or  less  in  length. 
[-Parallel  (Fig.  2,  A). 


I   Has  reference  to  the  relative 

2.  <  Spreading.  ^  ... 

c  ,.  .  n  ,     ,-r,.      .,      .  N  position  of  awns  and  spike. 

L  Spreading  widely  (tig.  1,  .4).  j       x  A 

f  Deciduous.    Awns  falling  as  soon  as  grain  is  mature. 

3.  <  Parti y  deciduous. 

t  Persistent.    Awns  not  falling  off  naturally. 

Spikelet 

f  Spreading  widely  (Fig.  3,B). "]  _   .  ,         ,    . 

i        J        ..  J  v  ;    I  Refers  to  the  relative  width 

1.  -4  Spreading.  I-        .    ,         .,    , 

I     '  %.      q      (.  of  the  spikelet. 

L  Narrow  (rig.  3,  .1). 

2.  Number  of  grains,  1,  2,  3,  4 

5,  0,  7. 
Outi  r  glume 

f  Hairy  (Fig.  4,  B  and  C). 
1.  i  Partly  hairy. 

I  Smooth  (Fig.  4,  A  and  D). 


A  B  CD 

Fig.  3.    Two  types  of  wheat  spikelets     Fig.  4.    Types  of  outer  glumes 


LABORATORY  STUDY  OF  CHARACTERS 


Grain 


f  Very  hard.  "] 

Hard.  This  point  is  determined  by  biting  or  cutting 

\  Medium.       I      open    several    grains    and    comparing    with 

Soft.  standard  samples. 

Very  soft,    j 


Size 


Weight  of  100  average  seeds  in  grams. 


Color 


M 


f  Whitish. 
Yellowish. 
Clear  amber 
Dull  amber. 
Clear  red. 
Dull  red. 


Cross  section 

r 


Very  horny. 
I  Horny. 
1  Dull. 

Starchv. 


1  Refers  to  appearauce.  When  the  grain  in  cross 
section  is  hard  and  vitreous  in  texture  it  is 

I  "  very  horny,"  but  when  there  is  no  horny 
portion,  but  the  cross  section  is  all  white  and 

J       starchy  in  appearance,  it  is  called  <  <  starchy. 


General 
1 


r 

M 


characters 
Hardy. 

Delicate. 

Early. 

Medium. 

Late. 

Days  maturing. 

Autum  n-planted . 

Spring-planted. 


These  points  can  only  be  determined  by 
referring  to  field  notes  on  the  variety. 


WHEAT 


Outline  fob  describing  Wheat 


Sample 
No.  1 

Sample 
NO.  2 

Sample 
No.  3 

Sample 
No.  4 

Sample 
No.  5 

Spike 
1 

•  > 

:; 

Shape 

1 

2 

3 

( 'olor 

1 

Awns 
1 

2 

Spikelet 

•> 

Outer  Glume 
1 

Grain 

1 

Color 
1 

1 

General  characters 
1 

2 

3 

I 

Student's  Name Date. 


LABORATORY  STUDY  OF  CHARACTERS      9 

Examining  the  Quality  of  Wheat 

Each  student  should  be  provided  with  about  ten  samples 
of  wheats.  These  should  represent  as  great  a  variety  of 
qualities  as  possible. 

The  first  five  samples  might  be  arranged  according  to  the 
degree  of  hardness,  and  the  following  arrangement  is  sug- 
gested :  No.  1 .  Macaroni  Wheat ;  No.  2,  Hard  Winter  ;  No.  3, 
Northwestern  Spring;  No.  4,  Red  Winter;  No.  5,  White 
Whiter.  The  rest  of  the  samples  may  all  be  of  one  type,  as 
Hard  Winter,  or  Red  Winter,  but  should  represent  several 
different  grades. 

Report  Card 

Wheat 

No.... .....  Variety 

Weight  per  bushel 11  is. 

Whitish 

Yellowish per  cent 

( Hear  amber 

Dull  amber per  cent 

Clear  red 

Dull  red per  cent 

Unsound  grain per  cent 

Foreign  matter per  cent 

f  Hard  and 

Hardness  |       vitreous per  cent 

.      .  I  Intermediate percent 

[  Soft  and  starchy per  cent 

Weight  of  100  grains grams 

Size    r  Large per  cent 

of     -{  Medium per  cent 

grain  [  Small per  cent 

Viability per  cent 

[Form  No.  i] 


Color  J 


10  WHEAT 

Let  the  student  now  carefully  compare  the  first  live 
samples  as  to  hardness,  texture,  color,  size  of  berries,  etc. 
This  is  most  easily  accomplished  by  filling  out  a  blank  card 
for  each  sample,  similar  to  Form  No.  1  on  page  9.  This  gives 
a  qualitative  analysis  of  each  sample  and  necessitates  a  crit- 
ical study.  He  should  understand  clearly  the  correlations 
between  hardness,  texture,  and  color ;  how  these  are  affected 
by  climate,  soil,  and  moisture ;  in  what  way  they  affect  the 
bread-making  qualities  of  the  wheat;  and  in  what  regions 
the  different  types  are  principally  grown.  In  the  judging 
and  grading  work  which  follows,  these  five  samples  should 
be  used  as  standards  in  hardness,  texture,  and  color. 

The  following  notes  of  general  information  should  be  care- 
fully read  by  the  student. 

Notes  on  the  Quality  of  Wheat 

Hardness.  The  hardness  of  wheat  varies  greatly  in  dif- 
ferent sections  of  the  country.  This  is  due  to  the  definite 
effect  of  environment.  Wheats  grown  in  a  region  of  abundant 
rainfall  and  under  humid  conditions,  or  under  irrigation, 
are  usually  softer  and  lighter  colored  and  lower  in  protein 
content  than  wheats  grown  under  dryer  conditions. 

Winter  wheats  grown  in  most  of  the  states  east  of  the 
Mississippi  Eiver  are  of  the  softer  type  and  are  known  as 
"  red  "  winter  wheats,  while  those  grown  in  the  belt  of  country 
bordering  on  the  semi-arid  and  running  through  Nebraska, 
Kansas,  and  Oklahoma,  are  generally  of  the  hard,  dark  red 
type,  and  are  known  as  "  hard  "  winter  wheats. 

The  hard  winter  wheats  are  mostly  of  the  Turkish  Eed 
variety.    The  characteristics,  however,  which  mark  it  as  a 


Aleurone       Inner  Inner  Layer  of  Pericarp 

Layer  Integument      {Chlorophyll  Bearing)  Pericarp 

\  \ 

■>■ . 


Pericarp 


Fig.  5.  Structure  of  the  wheat  berry:  A,  wheat  berry  cut  through  at 
the  crease  ;  B,  cross  section  of  the  wheat  berry  ;  C,  bran  scale.  Ordi- 
narily a  few  starch-bearing  cells  adhere  to  the  inside  of  the  bran 

11 


12  WHEAT 

hard  winter  wheat  are  due  to  environment,  sinee  this  same 
variety,  if  grown  in  Illinois  for  example,  soon  loses  its  hard 
qualities  and  grades  instead  as  a  "  red  "  winter  wheat. 

The  same  is  also  true  of  spring  wheats,  the  famous  "  No.  1 
Hard  Spring"  coining  from  the  somewhat  dry  climate  of  the 
Dakotas,  Minnesota,  and  the  Northwest. 

Northern  wheats  may  he  harder  or  softer  than  southern, 
though  this  quality  seems  to  depend  on  soil  and  moisture 
more  than  on  latitude. 

Texture.  Texture  and  hardness  are  closely  correlated. 
The  texture  is  examined  by  making  cross  sections  of  the 
grain  and  is  described  as  horny  when  it  is  found  to  be  dark 
and  vitreous  in  appearance,  with  no  starch  showing.  ( )pposed 
to  these  are  the  grains  which  are  white  and  starchy  through- 
out. This  is  the  characteristic  appearance  of  the  soft  white 
wheats  of  the  Pacific  coast  and  Australia,  while  the  horny 
texture  is  characteristic  of  the  macaroni,  all  hard  winter  and 
spring  wheats.  Wheats  of  a  horny  texture  are  generally 
higher  in  protein  content  and  produce  a  stronger  flour. 

Weight.  The  weight  per  measured  bushel  has  always 
been  regarded  as  of  the  greatest  importance  in  judging  the 
quality  of  wheat.  In  a  general  way  it  is  true  that  a  good 
wheat  never  has  a  low  weight  per  bushel,  while  a  poor  wheat 
is  never  high  in  weight. 

Light  weight  may  be  due  to  immaturity,  to  premature 
dry  weather  or  hot  winds,  or  to  the  attacks  of  insects.  The 
skin  is  wrinkled  and  not  well  tilled  out  with  starch.  The 
weight  of  good  wheat  may  be  reduced  by  exposure  to  in- 
clement weather,  when  part  of  the  grain  is  sprouted  or  is 
swelled  and  soaked  by  water  until  it  never  quite  regains  its 
normal   size:    or  by  overheating  in  the  stack,  called  stack 


LABORATORY  STUDY  OF  CHARACTERS     13 

burning;  or  by  piling  up  in  bins  when  too  damp,  causing 
heat  and  mold. 

Soundness.  A  good  No.  1  wheat  should  have  no  sprouted, 
decayed,  or  injured  grains  from  any  cause,  as  exposure,  stack 
burning,  or  moths.  A  No.  2  wheat  might  have  a  few  dis- 
colored grains,  but  none  sprouted.  A  No.  3  wheat,  if  dry  and 
in  good  condition  otherwise,  might  contain  a  few  sprouted 
grains.  However,  the  number  of  injured  grains  which  may 
pass  in  a  grade  depends  largely  on  how  good  the  wheat  was 
before  suffering  injury,  the  present  dryness,  etc.,  of  the 
sample.  Grading  is  always  based  as  nearly  as  possible  on  the 
actual  milling  quality  of  the  grain. 

Mustiness.  This  is  caused  usually  by  dampness,  either 
while  the  grain  is  in  stack  or  bin.  Musty  wheat  is  almost 
worthless  for  flour,  since  the  grain  is  permeated  with  a  musty 
flavor.  For  this  reason  even  a  slight  trace  of  mustiness  is 
always  discriminated  against,  even  though  the  wheat  may  still 
be  used  for  low-grade  Hour.  Musty  grain  is  often  worked  into 
chop  or  some  form  of  stock  food. 

Color.  Wheat  ranges  in  color  from  nearly  a  brick  red, 
through  various  shades  of  brown,  to  almost  white.  In  a 
general  way  wheats  from  humid  climates  are  light  colored, 
while  those  of  dry  climates  are  dark.  Some  have  a  smooth, 
bright  appearance,  while  in  others  the  color  is  dull.  Good 
wheat  should  not  be  bleached  or  in  any  way  discolored,  but 
should  be  generally  bright,  and  in  the  hard  wheats  should 
have  a  vitreous  appearance.  The  occurrence  of  "  yellow  ber- 
ries" in  hard  wheats  greatly  depreciates  their  value,  as  they 
give  a  yellow  color  to  the  flour. 

Stack  burning  gives  wheat  a  dark  and  somewhat  burnt 
appearance,  exposure  to  weather  produces  a  bleached  and 


14 


WHEAT 


dull  appearance,  while  overheating-  in  the  bin  usually  gives 
a  whitish  appearance  and  musty  smell.  Overheating  in  stack 
or  bin  often  gives  the  germ  end  a  dark  color. 


Judging  Wheat 

For  the  judging  work  first  use  the  ten  samples  provided 
in  the  previous  exercise.  When  these  have  been  scored  let 
the  instructor  go  over  them  carefully  with  the  students,  after 
which  the  class  should  have  access  to  a  good  general  collec- 
tion of  wheat  samples.  If  possible  the  samples  should  be 
provided  in  peck  or  half-bushel  lots. 


Score  Card  for  Wheat 


Credit 

l 

2 

3 

4 

5 

Milling  quality,  50$ 
(flour  making) 

Weight 

Soundness  and  dirt    . 
Uniformity,   50% 

Hardness  and  texture 

Color 

25 
25 

no 

20 

Total 

LOO 

Student's  Name 

..     Da1 

e 

Explanation  of  Score  Card 

In  this  score  card  wheat  is  judged  entirely  from  the  miller's 
standpoint.  If  the  wheat  were  being  selected  for  seed,  slightly 
different  points  might  be  considered,  and  the  emphasis  laid 


LABORATORY  STUDY  OF  CHARACTERS     15 

upon  the  above  points  in  a  different  manner ;  but  since  so 
little  is  known  as  to  just  what  constitutes  a  good  seed  wheat, 
outside  of  the  miller's  demands,  and  since  the  only  important 
point,  that  of  vitality,  requires  so  much  time  to  determine, 
it  is  thought  best  to  judge  the  wheat  from  the  miller's  stand- 
point only. 

Weight.  Wheat  should  weigh  sixty  pounds  per  bushel. 
Cut  two  points  for  every  pound  below  this.  Other  things 
being  equal,  a  light  wheat  always  contains  a  higher  per 
cent  of  bran  than  heavy,  and  a  lower  per  cent  of  patent 
flour. 

Soundness  and  dirt.  Sprouted,  cracked,  or  unsound  berries 
are  worthless  for  flour,  and  must  either  be  separated  out 
before  grinding  or  the  wheat  used  only  for  making  medium 
or  low-grade  flours.  Such  grains  are  of  little  more  value  than 
weed  seeds.  Cut  two  points  for  every  per  cent  of  weed  seeds 
and  unsound  grains. 

Uniformity  in  hardness  and  texture.  Take  about  a  one- 
ounce  sample  and  divide  it  into  three  parts,  —  (1)  berries  hard 
and  vitreous,  (2)  berries  soft  and  starchy,  (3)  berries  inter- 
mediate. Let  the  class  having  the  highest  per  cent  in  num- 
bers or  weight  determine  the  classification  of  the  sample. 
Cut  one  point  for  each  per  cent  representing  the  other  extreme, 
and  one  point  for  each  two  per  cent  of  intermediate.  (If  the 
largest  class  is  intermediate,  then  regard  the  other  two 
classes  as  extremes.)  In  case  of  a  fairly  uniform  sample  it  is 
often  best  to  divide  them  into  only  two  portions,  cutting  one 
point  for  each  two  per  cent  off. 

Uniformity  in  color.  In  case  of  a  mixture  of  colors  cut 
two  points  for  each  per  cent  off  color.  (Yellow  berries  in 
hard  winter  wheat  should  be  regarded  as  off  color.) 


Fibrous 

Tissue 


Aleurone 
Layer 


§ ,. 


m 


h„—Ay^"r    '■    ft 


Aleurone  Cells 


Fig.  6.  Structure  of  the  wheat  berry  (after  Cobb):  ^4,  section  nearly  to 
center  of  grain ;  B,  cellular  tissue  of  starch-bearing  cell ;  C,  Talavera 
de  Bellevue,  percentage  area  in  cellular  tissue,  29.8%  ;  D,  Belotourka, 
percentage  area  in  cellular  tissue,  ]8.:r, 


1C, 


LABORATORY  STUDY  OF  CHARACTERS     17 

Determining  the  Gluten  Content  of  Wheat 

The  student  should  be  provided  with  flour  made  from 
each  of  these  five  types  of  wheats,  for  the  gluten  test. 

Weigh  out  thirty  grams  of  Hour  made  from  a  hard  winter 
or  spring  wheat,  and  mix  with  enough  water  to  form  a 
stiff  dough.  After  it  has  been  worked  into  this  condition 
allow  it  to  stand  for  half  an  hour.  Transfer  the  dough  to  a 
cloth  and  let  a  gentle  stream  of  water  run  over  it,  working- 
it  meanwhile  with  the  fingers.  Continue  the  washing  until 
no  more  starch  is  washed  out,  which  is  shown  by  the  water 
being  clear  when  it  runs  away  from  the  dough  as  it  is  being 
worked  in  the  cloth  or  in  the  hand.  Allow  to  remain  in 
water. 

Perform  the  same  operation  with  a  very  soft  wheat,  as  for 
instance,  Sonora  wheat  from  the  Pacific  coast.  Compare  the 
amounts  of  gluten  from  the  two  wheats. 

Commercial  Grading  of  Wheat 

The  student  should  use  the  same  set  of  samples  for  the 
commercial  grading  work  that  he  has  used  in  judging,  since 
he  already  has  some  knowledge  of  the  relative  merits  of  these 
wheats.  At  least  a  part  of  the  samples  should  be  officially 
graded. 

The  object  of  this  work  is  not  primarily  to  learn  what 
constitutes  a  grade,  but  rather  to  give  the  student  a  knowl- 
edge, based  upon  critical  examination,  of  the  qualities  and 
characteristics  of  the  common  varieties  and  grades  of  wheat, 
both  o-ood  and  bad. 


18  AVHEAT 

Wheat  Inspection  Rules l 

No.  1  Bed  Winter  Wheat  shall  be  pure  Eed  Winter  Wheat 
of  both  light  and  dark  colors  of  the  shorter-berried  varieties, 
sound,  plump,  and  well  cleaned. 

No.  2  Eed  Winter  Wheat  shall  be  lied  Winter  Wheat 
of  both  light  and  dark  colors,  sound  and  reasonably 
clean. 

No.  3  Eed  Winter  Wheat  shall  include  Eed  Winter  Wheat 
not  clean  and  plump  enough  for  No.  2,  but  weighing  not  less 
than  fifty-four  pounds  to  the  measured  bushel. 

No.  4  Eed  Winter  Wheat  shall  include  Eed  Winter  Wheat 
damp,  musty,  or  from  any  cause  so  badly  damaged  as  to  ren- 
der it  unfit  for  No.  3. 

Eed  Winter  Wheat  containing  a  mixture  not  exceeding 
five  per  cent  of  White  Winter  Wheat  shall  be  classed  as 
Eed  Winter  Wheat. 

Eed  Winter  Wheat  containing  more  than  five  per  cent 
of  White  Winter  Wheat  shall  be  graded  according  to  the 
quality  thereof  and  classed  as  White  Winter  Wheat. 

Hard  Winter  Wheat.  The  grades  of  Nos.  1,  2,  3,  and  4 
Hard  Winter  Wheat  shall  correspond  in  all  respects  with 
the  grades  of  Nos.  1,  2,  3,  and  4  Eed  Winter  Wheat,  except 
that  they  shall  be  of  the  Turkish  variety. 

In  case  of  mixture  of  Turkish  Eed  Winter  Wheat  with 
Eed  Winter  Wheat,  it  shall  be  graded  according  to  the 
quality  thereof  and  classed  as  Hard  Winter  Wheat. 

No.  1  Northern  Spring  Wheat  must  be  Northern-grown 
Spring  Wheat,  sound  and  reasonably  clean  and  of  good  milling 

1  Rules  adopted  by  the  Board  of  Railroad  and  Warehouse  Commission- 
ers for  the  inspection  of  grain  at  Chicago. 


LABORATORY  STUDY  OF  CHARACTERS     19 

quality,  and  must  contain  not  less  than  50  per  cent  of  the 
hard  varieties  of  Spring  Wheat, 

No.  2  Northern  Spring  Wheat  must  be  Northern-grown 
Spring  Wheat,  not  clean  enough  or  sound  enough  for  No.  1, 
and  must  contain  not  less  than  50  per  cent  of  the  hard 
varieties  of  Spring  Wheat. 

No.  1  Spring  Wheat  shall  be  sound,  plump,  and  well 
cleaned. 

No.  2  Spring  Wheat  shall  be  sound,  reasonably  clean,  and 
of  good  milling  quality. 

No.  3  Spring  Wheat  shall  include  all  inferior,  shrunken, 
or  dirty  Spring  Wheat,  weighing  not  less  than  fifty-three 
pounds  to  the  measured  bushel. 

No.  4  Spring  Wheat  shall  include  Spring  Wheat,  damp, 
musty,  sprouted,  badly  bleached,  or  for  any  cause  which 
renders  it  unfit  for  No.  3. 

White  Spring  Wheat,  The  grades  of  Nos.  1,  2,  3,  and  4 
White  Spring  Wheat  shall  correspond  with  the  grades  of 
Nos.  1,  2,  3,  and  4  Spring  Wheat,  except  that  they  shall  be 
of  the  White  variety,  or  shall  contain  5  per  cent  or  more 
of  such  White  Wheat. 

Frosted  Wheat  shall  in  no  case  be  graded  higher  than 
No.  4,  except  that  the  grade  of  No.  3  may  contain  as  much 
of  said  Frosted  Wheat  as  it  is  customary  to  allow  of  wheat 
damaged  in  any  other  way. 

Mixed  Wheat.  The  grades  of  Nos.  2  and  3  Mixed  Wheat 
shall  be  equal  in  quality  to  the  grades  of  Nos.  2  and  3  Pied 
Winter  Wheat,  except  that  they  shall  include  mixtures  of 
Spring  and  Winter  Wheat. 

In  examining  a  sample  of  wheat  it  is  well  to  take  up  each 
point,  one  at  a  time  at  first,  as  "  hardness  "  or  "  texture,"  and 


20 


WHEAT 


examine  the  sample  for  this.  Make  a  note  of  your  observa- 
tion in  each  case.  After  the  sample  has  been  carefully 
examined  in  this  way  make  out  a  brief  report  on  each 
sample,  something  after  the  following  plan : 


(J  kadi; 


Weight 
per  Bushel 


•2  Hard     1  _Q  „  /. 

1-  08  lb.  i 

\\  inter     J  I 

3  Red       1  _„  „  f 


Winter 


y  56  lb.  <{ 


Remarks 


Horny  texture,  few  "yellow  ber 

ries. " 
Many    bleached     kernels,      lack.' 
plumpness,  slightly  musty. 


Testing  Wheat  for  Purity 

Standard  for  purity  99  per  cent, 

Take  about  a  half-pint  sample  and  spread  on  a  table,  care- 
fully separating  all  impurities,  as  weed  seeds,  straws,  etc.  Then 
rind  by  weight  the  amount  of  pure  seed  and  foreign  matter, 
and  calculate  per  cent  of  purity. 

Examine  the  foreign  matter  carefully  and  identify  the 
varieties  of  weed  seeds  found. 


Testing  Wheat  for  Viability 

Standard  for  germination  95-98  per  cent. 

If  taking  the  sample  from  a  bin,  do  not  take  it  from  one 
spot,  but  thoroughly  mix  several  shovelfuls,  and  then  take 
out  a  small  sample  and  take  from  this  at  random  100  grains. 
Place  hi  moist  chamber,  as  described  on  page  94,  and  moisten 
daily.  Keep  as  near  as  possible  at  a  temperature  ranging 
from  80°  to  90°F.  Germination  should  begin  in  three  clays 
and  be  complete  in  about  six. 


STUDY  OF  VARIATION   IN  WHEAT  PLANTS        21 

When  the  radicle  has  reached  a  length  of  one  fourth  inch 
or  more  the  germination  is  sufficient.  Remove  the  sprouted 
grains  daily  until  germination  has  ceased,  then  by  counting 
the  number  of  grains  left  and  subtracting  this  number  from 
100  vou  have  the  per  cent  of  germination. 


STUDY  OF  VARIATION  IN  WHEAT  PLANTS 

This  exercise  is  valuable  to  illustrate  the  natural  variation 
found  in  all  kinds  of  plants,  and  also  in  showing  the  value  of 
the  "  individual  plant  method  "  of  selection  for  pure  seed  or 
improved  strains. 

The  plants  are  grown  by  planting  one  seed  in  a  place,  six 
inches  apart  each  way.  When  the  plants  are  mature  they  are 
pulled  up  and  laid  away.  The  class  should  work  over  as 
large  a  number  of  plants  as  possible,  but  not  less  than  100. 
The  following  data  should  be  obtained  for  each  plant : 

1.  Number  of  spikes  per  plant. 

2.  Average  length  of  spikes  per  plant. 

3.  Average  number  of  berries  per  spike. 

4.  Number  of  berries  per  plant. 

5.  Weight  of  berries  per  plant. 

6.  Average  weight  of  berries  per  spike. 

7.  Weight  of  100  berries. 

8.  Average  weight  of  berry  per  plant, 

A  convenient  form  for  recording  the  properties  of  100 
plants  may  be  found  in  the  table  on  the  following  page. 

After  all  plants  have  been  examined  the  following  general 
correlations  should  be  worked  out: 

1.  Correlation  between  number  of  spikes  per  plant  and 
average  length. 


22 


WHEAT 


2.  Correlation  between  number  of  spikes  per  plant  and 
average  weight  of  grain  per  spike. 

3.  Correlation  between  number  of  spikes  per  plant  and 
total  yield  of  grain. 

4.  Correlation  between  total  yield  of  grain  and  size  of  berry. 
This  is  most  easily  carried  out  by  arranging  the  plants 

according  to  the  characteristics  for  which  a  correlation  is 
wanted.  For  example,  arrange  the  wheat  plants  according  to 
number  of  spikes  per  plant,  or  according  to  yield  per  plant. 
After  such  an  arrangement  the  correlations  ma)'  be  made  still 
more  graphic  by  platting  the  curves  on  coordinate  paper. 


M 

'A 

< 

04 

NUM BER  OF 

Spikes  per 
Plant 

A\  i.uage  Length 
of  Spikes  pick 
Plant 

Average  Number 
OF  Berries  per 
Spike 

w   < 
r     * 

c  ~ 

i     H 

r      ^ 

fa 
o   « 

a  * 

h   a 
r  ~ 

Average  Weight 
of  Berries 
per  Spike 

r. 

a  pq 

i§ 

Average  Weight 
of  Berrv  per 
Plant 

1 

2 

3 

4 

5 

6 

BLUESTONE   OR   COPPER-SULPHATE    TREATMENT  FOR 
STINKING  SMUT  OF  WHEAT 

(Prepared  by  A.  N.  Hume,  University  of  Illinois) 
Immerse  the  seed  for  ten  minutes  in  a  solution  of  copper 
sulphate  at  the  rate  of  one  pound  to  five  gallons  of  water. 
Allow  it  to  stand  for  ten   minutes  in  a  bag  or  basket  to 


Fig.  7.  Natural  variation  found  in  wheat  plants  grown  under  uniform 
condition.  These  two  plants  were  taken  from  a  bed  where  the  plants 
were  planted  one  in  a  place,  0  inches  apart  each  way 

23 


24  WHEAT 

drain,  and  then  spread  and  dry.  ( )r  the  seed  may  be  sprinkled 
at  the  rate  of  one  gallon  of  the  solution  to  four  bushels  of 
grain,  sprinkling  and  stirring  until  thoroughly  wet.  At  the 
end  of  an  hour  dry. 

Treat  a  sufficient  quantity  of  seed  wheat  by  either  one  of 
the  above  methods. 

Test  duplicate  samples  of  100  kernels  of  treated  and 
untreated  seed  and  report  as  follows: 

Treated  Seed 
Per  cent  germinated :  (1)  ,(2)  ;  Ay. 

Untreated  Se<  d 
Per  cent  germinated :  (1) ,  (2) :  Av. 

Does  the  treatment  injure  the  vitality  of  the  seed? 

.Student's  Name Date 


HOPERTY  LIBRARY 

jjl  C  State  College 


SECTION  II— CORN 

CLASSIFICATION  OF  SPECIES 

The  different  groups  of  corn  are  classified  as  follows: 
Order    ...  .  .....  Graminece 

Genus ..................  Zrd 

Species .Mays 

Groups 

Zea  tunicate  (the  pod  corns)  :  each  kernel  is  inclosed  in 
a  pod  or  husk,  and  the  ear  inclosed  in  husks;  rare;  very 
leafy,  hence  called  "  cow  corn." 

Z.  everta  (the  pop  corns)  :  characterized  by  the  excessive 
proportion  of  corneous  endosperm  and  the  small  size  of  the 
kernels  and  ear.  Kernel  is  pointed-oval  in  form.  The  hest 
]  K )] )]  ring  varieties  are  corneous  throughout.  Popping  is  caused 
by  the  explosion  of  contained  moisture  on  heating. 

Z.  indurata  (the  flint  corns):  characterized  by  starchy 
endosperm  inclosed  in  corneous  endosperm.  They  are  oval  in 
form.  In  some  varieties  the  corneous  portion  is  very  thin  at 
top  and  a  slight  indentation  appears. 

Z.  indentata  (the  dent  corns):  characterized  by  corneous 
endosperm  at  the  sides  of  the  kernel,  the  starchy  endosperm 
extending  to  the  summit.  By  drying  and  shrinkage  of  the 
starchy  matter  the  summit  of  the  kernel  is  drawn  in  or 
together  and  indented  in  various  forms.  The  kernel  is  long 
and  wedge-shaped.  Most  extensively  grown  and  has  largest 
number  of  varieties. 

2-3 


26  CORN 

Z.  amylacea  (the  soft  corns)  :  characterized  by  the  absence 

of  corneous  endosperm;  all  starchy;  no  indentation  ;  shrinks 
uniformly ;  shaped  like  flint  but  soft. 

Z.  saccharata  (the  sweet  corns) :  characterized  by  the 
translucent,  horny  appearance  of  the  kernel,  and  the  more 
or  less  wrinkled  or  shriveled  condition ;  shrinking  due  to 
change  of  starch  to  glucose :  wedge-shaped  kernel. 

Varieties  of  Corn 

The  so-called  varieties  of  corn,  like  those  of  wheat,  are 
very  numerous. 

Varieties  of  the  dent  type  are  most  commonly  grown  in 
this  country. 

Flint  corn  ripens  earlier  and  is  adapted  to  the  more 
northern  latitudes. 

Dent  corn  grows  larger  and  yields  heavier. 

While  there  are  numerous  so-called  varieties,  there  are 
only  a  few  distinct  and  recognized  breeds  of  uniform  char- 
acteristics. 

Owing  to  the  ease  with  which  varieties  are  produced,  each 
locality  generally  has  varieties  peculiarly  adapted  to  it. 


LABORATORY  STUDY  OF  SPECIES  AND  OF 
CHARACTERS 

Examination  of  Species 

Samples  on  the  stalk  of  the  various  types  of  corn  are 
provided. 

For  each  of  the  six  principal  groups  of  corn  carry  out  the 
following  outline  : 


STUDY   OF  SPECIES  AND  OF  CHARACTERS 


27 


Describe  a  typical  ear  as  to  color,  shape,  indentation  and 
depth  of  grain,  length,  etc. 

Make  drawings  of  both  longitudinal  and  cross  sections  of 
grains,  showing  by  ap- 
propriate shading  where 
the  germ,  the  starchy 
portion,  and  horny  por- 
tions of  the  kernel  are 
located. 


Terms  for  describing 
Corn 

The  value  of  this  ex- 
ercise is  to  enable  the 
instructor  to  fix  the 
meaning  of  the  techni- 
cal terms  used  in  de- 
scribing an  ear  of  corn. 
For  example,  the  terms 
"  deep  indentation,"  or 
"wedge-shaped,"  may 
convey  different  mean- 
ings   to    different    Stll-    Germ  Root- 

dents.    If  the  class  all 

have  a  common  under-     FlG-  8-  A 

standing  of  these  terms 

the  regular  work  of  corn  judging  is  then  much  simplified. 

Give  each  student  an  ear  of  corn  and  have  Mm  describe 
it  by  filling  out  the  outline  on  page  32.  Eight  or  ten  ears 
should  be  described  in  this  way. 


Germ  Stem 


low-proteid  corn  kernel  ;  B, 
high-proteid  corn  kernel 


Fig.  9.  Typical  ears  of  corn:  A,  cylindrical  ear;  B,  very  tapering  ear, 
rows  dropping  out ;  C,  tapering  ear,  kernels  becoming  shorter  toward 
the  tip 


28 


STUDY  OF  SPECIES  AND  OF  CHARACTERS         29 


Shape  of  Ear 

Cylindrical  (Fig.  0,  A). 
Tapering  (Fig.  9,  ('). 
Very  tapering  (Fig.  !),  ]'>) 

Length  of  Ear 

Long  (over  10  inches). 
Medium  (8  to  10  inches). 
Short  (under  8  inches). 

Circumference  of  Ear 
Large  (over  8  inches). 
Medium  (6  to  8  inches). 
Small  (under  6  inches). 

Color  of  Kernel 
Yellow. 
Variegated. 
White. 
Red. 


Fig.  19.  A,  wedge-shaped  ker- 
nel; J5,  round  kernel;  C, 
square  kernel ;  D,  edge  view 
of  kernels  fitting  close  at  tips  ; 
E,  kernels  with  wide  space 
at  tip 


Indentation  of  Kernel 
Smooth. 
Dimpled. 
Deeply  dented. 

Shape  of  Kernel 

Wedge  (Fig.  10,  A). 
Round  (Fig.  10,  B). 
Square  (Fig.  10,  C). 
Parallel-sided  (Fig.  10,  D). 
Pointed  (Fig.  10,  E). 

Length  of  Kernel 

Long  (Figs.  12,  A,  and  16,  B). 

Medium. 

Short  (Figs.  1*2,  B,  and  16,  A). 

Number  of  Rows  of  Kernels 

Many  (20  or  more). 
Medium  (14  to  20). 
Few  (under  14). 


Fig.  11.    A  study  of  kernel  types 
{Michigan  Bulletin,  34) 


30 


CORN 


Fig.  12.    Deep-  and  shal low-kern eled  corn  :  A,  long  kernel, 
small  cob ;  B,  short  kernel,  large  cob 


Space  between  Rows 

(at  crown  of  kernel) 
Wide  (Fig.  11). 
Close  (Fig.  11). 

(at  cob) 
Close  (Fig.  11). 
Wide  (Fig.  11). 

.1  rrangement  of  Rows 

In  some  corn  the 
rows  seem  to  be 
in    pairs,    while   in 


Distinct. 
Paired. 


others  the  rows  are 
all  separate. 


Tips 

Covered  (Fig.  13,  /•'). 
Exposed  (Fig.  13,  .1). 


Swell  of  Butt 

Deeply  rounded  (Fig.  13,  E). 
Moderately  rounded. 
Flat  (Fig.  1:3,  D). 

Size  of  Butt 

Enlarged  (Fig.  9,  B). 
Uniform  (Fig.  1),  A). 

Size  of  Shank 

Small  (Fig.  13,  C). 
Medium  (Fig.  13,  E). 
Large  (Fig.  13,  D). 

Size  of  Cob 

Small  (Fig.  12.  ,1). 

Medium. 

Large  (Fig.  12,  B). 

Color  of  Cob 
Red.     White. 


For  this  exercise  select  ears  or  kernels  that  possess  each 
of  the  characters  mentioned  under  each  head. 


Fig.  13.  A  and  7>,  poor  tips,  too  much  exposed  ;  C,  poor  butt,  shank  too 
small;  D,  poor  butt,  shank  and  cob  too  large;  E,  ideal  butt;  F, 
ideal  tip 


31 


32  CORX 

Outline  for  describing  Corn 

Variety  Name Number  of  Sample. 

Ear  Arrangement 

Shape Tip 

Length 

Circumference gutt 

Kernel  Swell 

Color Size 

Indentation...  Shank 

Smipe Size 

Length...  Coh 

Rows  Size 

Number Color 

Space 

At  cap 

At  col) 

Student's  Name Date 


Comparative  Study  of  Characters 

The  student  should  be  provided  with  a  ten-ear  exhibit. 
Selecting  some  part,  like  the  tip  of  the  ear,  first  arrange  the 
ears  according  to  tips,  placing  the  best  tip  at  the  right,  then 
the  next  best  tip,  and  so  on,  the  poorest  finally  being  on  the 
extreme  left. 

The  following  order  of  study  is  suggested : 

1.  Place  ears  according  to  tips. 

2.  Place  ears  according  to  butts. 

3.  Place  ears  according  to  shape. 

4.  Place  ears  according  to  indentation. 


STUDY  OF  SPECIES  AND  OF  CHARACTERS         33 

5.  Place  ears  according  to  shape  of  kernel. 

6.  Place  ears  according  to  space  between  rows. 

7.  Place  ears  according  to  market  condition. 

8.  Place  ears  having  both  best  butt  and  best  tip. 

9.  Place  ear  first  having  best  butt,  tip,  and  shape,  and  so 
on  down. 

Continue  the  arrangements,  adding  one  new  part  each 
time,  until  the  student  finally  places  the  ears  first,  second, 
third,  etc.,  when  all  parts  are  taken  into  consideration. 


Fig.  14.  A  ten-ear  exhibit  of  corn,  and  the  box  in  which  it  is  kept. 
The  ears  are  placed  from  right  to  left,  according  to  the  quality  of  the 
butts.  This  illustrates  the  method  of  making  a  comparative  study  of 
some  one  character 


Judging  Corn 


The  operation  of  judging  corn  is  an  attempt  to  estimate 
numerically  its  value  for  seed.  The  principle  involved  is  that 
an  ear  of  corn  when  planted  reproduces  more  or  less  closely 
its  own  characters  in  the  resulting  ears.  By  selecting  for 
seed  ears  of  uniform  size,  deep  kernels,  and  other  desirable 
characters,  the  production  of  nubbins,  shallow  kernels,  and 
other  objectionable  characters  is  diminished,  and  the  pro- 
ductiveness correspondingly  increased. 


34 


CORN 


Two  types  of  score  cards  are  shown,  either  of  which  may 
be  used  iii  judging.    Each  of  these  cards  is  typical  of  a  system 

of  judging  adapted  to  the 
production  of  corn  under 
certain  conditions.  The 
essential  difference  is  that 
Score  Card  No.  1  is  de- 
signed to  discourage  the 
production  of  a  thick  cob, 
chiefly  because  it  retards 
drying  of  the  grain  in 
the  fall,  and  thus  makes 
the  late-maturing  corn 
likely  to  be  injured  by 
frost. 

Score  Card  No.  2  is 
adapted  to  a  region  of 
light  rainfall  and  dry  at- 
mosphere, where  the 
grain  dries  out  readily  in 
the  fall,  and  where  a  thick  cob  is  supposed  to  accompany 
drought  resistance  in  the  corn.  Both  cards  favor  a  deep 
kernel. 

Points  to  he  Observed 

Uniformity  of  Exhibit.  The  points  that  go  to  produce 
uniformity  of  exhibit  are  size,  shape,  and  color  of  ear,  appear- 
ance of  tips  and  butts,  and  indentation  of  kernel.  The  ears 
should  closely  resemble  each  other  in  these  characters;  in 
other  words,  each  ear  should  look  as  much  as  possible  like 
every  other  ear.    In  considering  this  point  the  judge  is  not 


Fig.  15.    A  case  used  in  keeping  the  ten- 
ear  exhibits  of  corn  for  judging 


STUDY  OF  SPECIES  AND  OF   CHARACTERS         35 

called  upon  to  decide  as  to  the  desirability  of  the  charac- 
ters possessed  by  the  different  ears,  but  solely  as  to  their 
similarity. 

The  judge  places  the  ten  ears  side  by  side  on  a  table  or 
bench  with  the  butts  towards  him.  He  then,  by  removing 
one  ear  and  replacing  it  by  another,  sorts  over  the  exhibit 
until  he  has  the  similar  ears  lying  side  by  side.  If  there  are 
six  similar  ears  of  one  type  and  four  of  another,  he  credits 
the  exhibit  with  six  similar  ears,  even  should  these  not  be  so 
desirable  as  those  of  the  other  type. 

Triteness  to  Type.  Each  variety  of  corn  has,  or  should  have, 
its  character  sufficiently  constant  and  well  marked  to  enable 
any  one  acquainted  with  the  variety  to  recognize  it.  The 
combination  of  characters  gives  type  to  the  variety.  In 
judging  trueness  to  type  the  ears  possessing  all  of  the  variety 
characters  to  an  unmistakable  degree  are  credited  with  being 
true  to  type,  while  those  failing  in  this  respect  are  discarded. 

Sh ape  of  Ears.  Leaving  the  exhibit  arranged  as  before, 
count  the  number  of  ears  that  are  cylindrical  or  nearly  so. 
Credit  the  exhibit  with  such  ears  only.  A  cylindrical  ear 
is  desirable  because  it  permits  the  growth  of  kernels  of 
uniform  shape,  and  such  ears  generally  have  a  larger  pro- 
portion of  corn  to  cob.  A  tapering  ear  must  have  kernels 
becoming  smaller  from  butt  to  tip,  or  else  must  drop  out 
one  row  or  more  between  the  butt  and  tip.  In  either  case 
badly  shaped  and  small  kernels  are  produced. 

Color  of  Cohs.  The  color  of  the  cob  is,  to  some  extent, 
a  guide  to  the  purity  of  breeding  of  the  exhibit.  The  pres- 
ence of  a  white  cob  in  an  exhibit  of  otherwise  red  cobs  is 
an  indication  that  at  some  time  there  has  been  a  cross  with 
a  white-cob  variety.     This  may  have  occurred  many  years 


36  CORN 

before,  and  may  not  be  a  present  detriment  to  the  corn,  but, 
on  the  other  hand,  it  may  be  detrimental  and  for  that  reason 
is  discountenanced.  The  same  is  true  of  the  presence  of  a 
red  cob  hi  an  exhibit  of  otherwise  white  ones.  Some  varieties 
of  corn  having  white  kernels  have  red  cobs,  but  in  such  a 
case  there  should  be  no  white  cobs  in  the  exhibit. 

Color  of  Kernels.  A  yellow  kernel  on  a  white  ear  or  a 
white  kernel  on  a  yellow  ear  shows  that  the  corn  has  been 
fertilized  by  pollen  from  corn  of  another  color ;  in  other 
words,  it  shows  that  the  variety  is  not  strictly  pure.  The 
cross  fertilization  may  have  occurred  in  the  year  in  which 
the  ear  was  raised  or  it  may  be  of  earlier  date ;  there  is  no 
way  of  distinguishing,  but  the  fact  is  equally  objectionable 
in  either  case. 

Each  kernel  on  the  ear  results  from  the  fertilization  of 
its  ovary  by  pollen  from  the  same  plant  or  some  other.  The 
pollen  is  borne  on  the  tassel.  If  any  ovary  is  fertilized  by 
pollen  from  corn  of  a  different  color,  the  resulting  kernel 
will  be  of  a  different  color  from  the  rest  of  the  ear. 

A  mixed  kernel  on  a  yellow  ear  may  be  readily  seen,  as 
the  crown  of  the  kernel  is  white.  On  a  white  ear  the  crowrn 
of  a  mixed  kernel  hardly  shows  the  yellow  color,  but  it  may 
be  seen  on  the  part  of  the  kernel  beneath  the  crown.  They 
are,  therefore,  harder  to  discover,  and  the  judge  must  look 
very  carefully. 

Market  Condition.  The  market  condition  of  corn  depends 
most  largely  upon  its  ripeness.  Other  conditions,  such  as 
freedom  from  smut  or  wTorms,  and  brightness  of  color,  also 
enter  into  consideration  to  some  extent.  The  degree  of 
maturity  is  commonly  determined  by  the  firmness  or  loose- 
ness of  the  kernels  on  the  cob,  and  by  the  stiffness  of  the 


STUDY  OF   SPECIES   AND  OF   CHARACTERS         37 

cob.  Take  in  turn  each  ear  in  the  hand  and  attempt  to 
twist  it.  If  the  cob  twists  readily  it  is  not  well  matured. 
If  the  cob  is  stiff,  see  if  the  kernels  are  loose  on  the  cob. 
Looseness  of  the  kernels  indicates  immaturity. 

Tips  of  Eur*.  The  tips  of  the  cobs  are  very  likely  to  pro- 
trude beyond  the  kernels.  The  extent  to  which  this  occurs 
will  vary  with  the  season  and  with  the  strain  of  corn.  The 
tips  are  considered  in  selecting  corn  for  seed  because,  being 
the  last  part  of  the  ear  to  throw  out  silk,  there  is  a  possi- 
bility that  the  strain  may  acquire  the  habit  of  developing  the 
tip  silk  too  late  to  be  fertilized,  should  ears  without  tip  ker- 
nels be  continually  selected  for  seed. 

On  the  other  hand  it  is  argued  that,  in  the  main,  tips  that 
are  well  tilled  out  are  found  on  ears  of  less  than  average 
length,  and  that  their  selection  for  seed  must  result  in  short- 
ening the  ear.  However,  where  seed  ears  are  required  to 
be  of  a  certain  length,  it  is  doubtful  whether  this  argument 
will  hold. 

Butts  of  Ears.  As  the  ideal  ear  is  cylindrical  in  shape  the 
butt  should  be  uniform  in  diameter  with  the  rest  of  the  ear. 
It  should  be  well  rounded  and  symmetrical,  the  rows  extend- 
ing in  a  uniform  way  well  over  and  around  the  shank.  The 
butt  should  not  be  expanded  or  enlarged,  since  this  usually 
goes  with  an  abnormally  large  shank,  which  makes  husking 
more  difficult.  The  expanded  butt  is  generally  due  to  an 
enlargement  of  the  cob,  and  is  not  well  filled  over,  while  the 
kernels  are  short  and  irregular,  thus  reducing  the  percentage 
of  corn.  On  the  other  hand,  the  butt  may  be  contracted  or 
filled  over  too  far,  in  which  case  the  shank  is  apt  to  be  too 
small,  increasing  the  tendency  of  the  ears  to  drop  off  before 
husking  time. 


38  CORN 

Uniformity  of  Kernels.  The  kernel  shape  varies  with 
varieties,  but  whatever  the  shape,  if  the  corn  is  a  well- 
selected  variety,  the  kernels  should  be  similar.  In  judging 
for  uniformity,  first  remove  two  kernels  from  near  the  mid- 
dle of  each  ear  and  lay  them  near  one  end  of  the  ear,  with 
their  tips  toward  you.  Place  the  ears  and  pairs  of  kernels 
side  by  side,  when  the  comparative  size,  shape,  etc.,  of  the 
different  pairs  of  kernels  may  be  noted, 

The  indentation  of  the  kernels  is  best  compared  on  the 
ears.  Count  the  number  of  ears  having  kernels  which  are  in 
a  general  way  uniform  and  score  the  exhibit  accordingly. 

Shape  of  Kernels.  In  general  the  shape  of  the  kernel 
should  be  that  of  a  wedge,  as  this  shape  permits  the  greatest 
amount  of  corn  on  the  cob.  The  kernels  should  be  of  such 
shape  that  they  fit  snugly  from  tip  to  crown.  If  they  are 
too  wedge-shaped  there  is  a  loss  of  space  at  the  tips,  while 
if  they  are  too  rectangular  there  will  be  wide  spaces  between 
the  rows  at  the  crown.  The  kernels  should  not  be  too  thin 
at  the  tip,  but  should  be  about  the  same  thickness  as  at  the 
crowrn.  Pointed,  thin  kernels  are  often  low  in  vitality  and  of 
less  feeding  value  than  kernels  having  plump,  well-developed 
tips.  In  judging  the  shape  of  kernels,  remove  a  few  from 
near  the  middle  of  the  ear  in  order  to  enable  you  to  exam- 
ine the  spacing  between  the  tips  and  crowns  of  those  remain- 
ing on  the  ear,  and  to  note  how  closely  they  fit. 

The  length  and  indentation  of  the  kernels  should  also  be 
noted.  A  good  indentation  is  of  importance,  since  a  deep 
indentation  seems  to  go  with  a  deep  grain.  In  picking  seed 
ears,  only  well-indented  ones  should  be  selected,  as  this 
is  the  only  practical  way  of  keeping  up  a  good  depth  of 
kernel. 


STUDY  OF   SPECIES  AND  OF  CHARACTERS         39 

Space  between  Kernels.  The  space  between  kernels  is  closely 
correlated  with  their  shape.  Well-shaped  kernels  should  have 
no  lost  space  between  rows,  either  at  tips  or  crowns.  In  ex- 
amining spaces  between  rows,  remove  several  kernels  near 
the  middle  of  the  ear  and  examine  the  space  between  tips  of 
kernels  both  when  looking  at  the  side  of  the  row  and  when 
looking  at  the  ends.  Then  examine  the  spaces  between  rows 
at  the  top  of  kernels ;  this  should,  as  a  general  thing,  be  less 
than  one  thirty-second  of  an  inch,  though  this  rule  cannot 
be  rigidly  observed.  Too  much  space  is  not  only  associated 
with  poorly  shaped  and  irregular  kernels  but  also  with  a 
decreased  percentage  of  corn. 

Length  of  Ears.  The  length  of  ear  varies  with  the  available 
fertility  of  the  soil,  the  amount  of  moisture,  the  total  heat 
units  included  in  the  growing  season,  and  also  with  the 
variety  of  corn  and  its  hereditary  tendency.  Tt  is,  therefore, 
influenced  in  a  measure  by  the  seed,  and  for  that  reason  an 
ear  of  desirable  length  is  favored  by  one  of  the  score  cards. 
The  other  card  does  not  call  for  an  ear  of  a  certain  length, 
because  it  is  designed  for  a  region  in  which  the  distance  of 
a  few  miles  makes  a  great  difference  in  the  size  of  the  ear  it 
is  possible  to  raise,  and  that  it  is  desirable  to  select  for  seed. 
Even  in  a  region  of  good  rainfall  the  length  of  the  ear  will 
vary  with  the  latitude,  and  it  is  not  reasonable  to  expect  a 
variety  to  produce  as  large  ears  on  the  northern  edge  of  the 
corn  belt  as  it  does  farther  south.  It  will  be  necessary  there- 
fore to  have  different  standards  for  different  localities. 

Circumference  of  Ears.  This  is  determined  by  the  depth  of 
the  kernel  and  the  thickness  of  the  cob.  The  depth  of  kernel 
is  influenced  by  the  number  of  heat  units  in  the  growing 
season,  by  the  amount  of  available  fertility  and  moisture  in 


40  CORN 

the  soil,  and  by  inheritance.  A  deep  kernel  is  desirable 
because  it  gives  a  greater  yield  of  grain  than  does  a  shallow 
kernel.  The  depth  of  the  kernel  that  can  be  raised  in  any 
region  is  limited  by  the  length  and  temperature  of  the  grow- 
ing season.  While,  therefore,  a  deep  kernel  is  desirable,  it 
should  not  be  so  deep  that  it  cannot  mature  completely  in  the 
ordinary  growing  season  of  that  region.  In  a  humid  climate 
a  thin  cob  is  desirable,  while  in  a  dry  climate  a  large  cob  is  . 
considered  preferable.  In  Score  Card  No.  1  the  circumference 
prescribed  is  as  small  as  is  considered  consistent  with  a  deep 
kernel.    In  Score  Card  No.  2  no  value  is  given  to  this  point. 

Proportion  of  Corn  on  Ear.  The  reason  for  determining 
this  point  is  primarily  to  discourage  the  production  of  a  large 
cob,  while  it  also  encourages  a  deep  kernel.  The  effect  of 
this  point  in  connection  with  the  following  one  is  to  prevent 
the  growth  of  an  ear  unduly  large  in  circumference  in  pro- 
portion to  its  length. 

The  proportion  of  corn  on  the  ear  is  determined  by  weigh- 
ing three  representative  ears  of  the  exhibit,  shelling  the  grain, 
and  reweighing  the  cobs.  The  difference  between  these 
weights  divided  by  the  weight  of  the  ears  gives  the  per  cent 
of  corn  on  the  ear. 

Weight  of  Corn  on  Ear.  While  a  very  large  ear  of  corn  is 
not,  under  all  conditions,  desirable  for  seed,  it  is  to  be  desired * 
that  an  ear  of  a  given  length  should  possess  a  maximum 
quantity  of  grain.  By  requiring  an  ear  of  given  length  to 
shell  out  a  certain  weight  of  grain  a  deep  kernel  is  placed  at 
a  premium,  as  is  also  a  heavy  kernel.  The  danger  of  pro- 
ducing a  deep  but  light-weight  kernel  is  thus  avoided. 

It  is  well  understood  that  a  deep  kernel  requires  a  long 
growing  period   for  its  development.     Should   the   growing 


STUDY  OF  SPECIES  AND  OF  CHARACTERS 


41 


season  not  be  favorable,  or  should  the  attempt  be  made  to 
raise  a  tvpe  of  corn  having  a  kernel  too  deep  for  the  climate 


A  B 

Fig.  16.    Typical  ears:  A,  shallow-kerneled  ear ;  7>\  dccp-kerneled  ear 

in  which  it  is  planted,  the  result  would  be  a  comparatively 
deep  but  light-weight  kernel.  To  discourage  this  the  weight 
requirement  is  made. 


42 


CORN 


Score  Card  for  Com,  No.  1 

(Adopted  by  the  Iowa  Corn  Growers'  Association) 
Variety Number  of  Exhibit 


Value 

Student's 
Score 

Corrected 
Score 

Trueness  to  type 

10 

10 
5 
5 

10 
5 
5 

10 
5 

10 
5 
5 
5 

10 

Shape  of  ear 

Color  of  kernels 

Color  of  cob 

Vitality,  or  seed  condition       .      . 

Tips  of  ears 

Butts  of  ears 

Uniformity  of  kernels    .... 

Shape  of  kernels 

Length  of  ear 

Circumference  of  ear     .... 

Furrow  between  rows    .... 

Space  between  kernels  at  cob  . 

Proportion  of  corn  to  cob  . 

Student's  Name Date 


Rules  for  Judging  Exhibits  of  Corn  (Score  Card  No.  1) 

Trueness  to  Type.  The  ten  ears  in  the  sample  should 
possess  similar  or  like  characteristics  and  should  be  true  to 
the  variety  which  they  represent. 

Shape  of  Ear.  The  shape  of  the  ear  should  conform  to 
the  variety  type.  Ear  should  be  full  and  strong  in  central 
portion,  and  not  taper  too  rapidly  toward  the  tip,  indicating 
strong  constitution  and  good  yield. 

Color  of  Kernels.  Color  of  grain  should  be  true  to  variety 
and  free  from  mixture.    For  one  or  two  mixed  kernels  a  cut 


STUDY  OF   SPECIES   AND  OF  CHARACTERS         43 

of  one-fourth  point  should  be  made  ;  for  four  or  more  mixed 
kernels,  a  cut  of  one-half  point.  Differences  in  shade  of  color, 
as  light  or  dark  red,  white  or  cream  color,  must  be  scored 
according  to  variety  characteristics. 

Color  of  Coh.  An  ear  with  white  cob  in  yellow  corn  or 
red  cob  in  white  corn  should  be  disqualified  or  marked  zero. 
This  mixture  reduces  the  value  of  the  corn  for  seed  purposes, 
indicates  lack  of  purity,  and  tends  toward  a  too  wide  variation 
in  time  of  maturity,  size  and  shape  of  kernels,  etc. 

Vitality,  or  Seed  Condition.  Corn  should  be  in  good  market 
condition  and  should  show  good  constitution,  being  capable  of 
producing  strong,  vigorous  growth  and  yield. 

Tip*  of  Ears.  The  form  of  tip  should  be  regular;  ker- 
nels near  tip  should  be  of  regular  shape  and  size.  The  pro- 
portion of  tip  covered  or  tilled  must  be  considered.  Long, 
pointed  tips,  as  well  as  blunt,  flattened,  or  double  tips,  are 
objectionable. 

Butts  of  Ears.  The  rows  of  kernels  should  extend  in  regu- 
lar order  over  the  butt,  leaving  a  deep  depression  when  the 
shank  is  removed.  Open  and  swelled  butts,  depressed  and 
flat  butts  with  flattened,  glazed  kernels,  are  objectionable, 
and  must  be  cut  according  to  the  judgment  of  the  scorer. 

Uniformity  and  Shape  of  Kernels.  The  kernels  should  be 
uniform  in  size  and  shape,  making  it  possible  to  secure  uni- 
formity in  dropping  with  the  planter,  and  consequently  a 
good  stand.  The  kernels  should  also  be  not  only  uniform 
on  the  individual  ear  but  also  uniform  with  each  ear  in  the 
sample.  They  should  also  be  uniform  in  color  and  true  to 
variety  type.  The  kernels  should  be  so  shaped  that  their  edges 
touch  from  tip  to  crown.  The  tip  portion  of  the  kernel  is  rich 
in  protein  and  oil,  and  hence  of  high  feeding  value.    Kernels 


44  CORN 

with  a  large  germ  insure  strong,  vigorous  growth,  as  well  as 
richness  in  quality  of  kernel. 

Length  of  Ear.  The  length  of  ear  varies  according  to  vari- 
ety, type,  and  the  characteristics  sought  for  by  the  indi- 
vidual breeder.  Uniformity  in  length  is  to  be  sought  for  in 
a  sample,  and  a  sample  having  even  length  of  ears  should 
score  higher  than  one  that  varies,  even  if  it  be  within  the 
limits.  Usual  length  of  ears  for  northern  section  of  state? 
8^  to  9£  inches ;  central  section,  8|  to  9|  inches ;  southern 
section,  9  to  10  inches.  Very  long  ears  are  objectionable 
because  they  usually  have  poor  butts  and  tips,  broad,  shallow 
kernels,  and  hence  a  low  percentage  of  corn  to  cob. 

Circumference  of  Ear.  The  points  made  on  length  of  ear, 
differing  with  variety  types,  hold  true  also  in  circumference 
of  the  ear.  The  circumference  of  the  ear  should  be  in  sym- 
metry with  its  length.  An  ear  too  great  in  circumference  for 
its  length  is  generally  slow  in  maturing,  and  too  frequently 
results  in  soft  corn.  Dimensions  for  the  northern  section  of 
the  state  are  6£-  to  7  inches;  central  section,  6|  to  7}  inches; 
southern  section,  7  to  7^  inches.  Measure  the  circumfer- 
ence at  one  third  the  distance  from  the  butt  to  the  tip  of 
the  ear. 

Furrows  between  Bows.  The  furrows  between  the  rows  of 
kernels  should  be  of  sufficient  size  to  permit  the  corn  to  dry 
out  readily,  but  not  so  large  as  to  lose  in  proportion  of  corn 
to  col). 

Space  between  Tips  of  Kernels  at  Cob.  This  is  very  objec- 
tionable, as  it  indicates  immaturity,  weak  constitution,  and 
poor  feeding  value. 

Proportion  of  Corn  to  Cob.  The  proportion  of  corn  is  deter- 
mined by  weight,    Depth  of  kernels,  size  of  cob,  maturity, 


STUDY  OF  SPECIES  AND  OF  CHARACTERS 


45 


furrows,  and  space  at  cob  all  affect  the  proportion.  In  deter- 
mining the  proportion  of  corn  to  cob,  weigh  and  shell  every 
alternate  ear  in  exhibit.  Weigh  the  cobs  and  subtract  from 
weight  of  ears,  giving  weight  of  corn ;  divide  the  weight  of 
corn  by  total  weight  of  ears,  which  will  give  the  per  cent 
of  corn.  Per  cent  of  corn  should  be  from  86  to  87.  For  each 
per  cent  short  of  standard  a  cut  of  one  and  one-half  points 
should  be  made. 

Each  sample  should  consist  of  ten  ears  of  corn. 


Score  Card  for  ('urn.  No.  2 
Variety  Name Number  of  Exhibit. 


Value 

Student's 
Score 

Corrected 

Score 

Uniformity  of  exhibit  .... 

10 

10 

."> 

5 

10 

.1 

5 

10 

10 

5 

25 

Shape  of  ears 

Color  of  cob 

Color  of  kernels 

Market  condition      .      .      .      . 

Tips  of  ears 

Butts  of  ears 

Uniformity  of  kernels    .... 

Shape  of  kernels 

Space  between  kernels  .... 

Weight  of  grain 

Student's  Name Date. 


Rides  for  Judging  Exhibits  of  Corn  (Score  Card  Xo.  2) 

Uniformity  of  Exhibit.  The  ears  in  an  exhibit  should  be 
similar  in  size,  shape,  color,  and  indentation.  For  each  ear 
deficient  in  these  respects  cut  the  exhibit  one  point. 


46  CORN 

Shape  of  Ears.  The  ears  should  be  cylindrical,  or  nearly 
so.  Cut  the  exhibit  one  point  for  each  ear  deviating  from 
this  requirement. 

Color  of  Coh.  The  cobs  should  be  uniformly  red  or  uni- 
formly white,  For  each  white  cob  in  an  exhibit  in  which 
the  red  predominate,  cut  the  exhibit  one-half  point.  Do  the 
same  for  each  red  cob  in  an  exhibit  of  white  cobs. 

Color  of  Kernels.  For  each  white-crowned  kernel  in  a 
yellow  or  red  variety  cut  the  exhibit  one-tenth  point.  For 
each  yellow  kernel  in  a  white  variety  give  the  same  cut. 

Market  Condition.  The  corn  should  be  well  matured,  firm, 
and  sound.  For  each  ear  deficient  in  these  respects  cut  the 
exhibit  one  point. 

Tips  of  Ears.  The  tips  of  the  ears  should  be  covered  with 
regular,  uniform  kernels.  Add  together  the  lengths  of  pro- 
truding cobs  on  all  ears  of  the  exhibit,  and  cut  at  the  rate  of 
one-half  point  for  each  inch. 

Butts  of  Ears.  The  rows  of  kernels  should  be  even  and 
swell  out  evenly  beyond  the  end  of  the  col).  Cut  the  exhibit 
one-half  point  for  each  poorly  filled  butt,  and  one-fourth  point 
for  each  flat  butt. 

Uniformity  of  Kernels.  The  kernels  should  possess  sim- 
ilar characters.  Cut  the  exhibit  one-half  point  for  each 
deficient  ear. 

Shape  of  Kernels.  The  kernels  should  have  a  wedge 
shape  on  the  broad  side,  and  on  the  narrow  side  the  edges 
should  be  parallel.  Cut  one  point  each  for  each  objection- 
able ear. 

Space  between  Kernels.  The  rows  of  kernels  should  not  be 
more  than  one  thirty-second  of  an  inch  apart  at  any  part  of 
the  row.    If  more  than  one  sixteenth  of  an  inch  apart,  cut 


STUDY  OF  SPECIES   AND  OF   CHARACTERS         47 

one-half  point ;  if  less  than  that,  but  more  than  one  thirty- 
second,  cut  one-fourth  point  for  each  ear. 

Weight  of  Grain.  The  weight  of  grain  on  an  average  ear 
should  come  up  to  the  following  requirements  : 

Length  of  ear  12  inches  and  over,  weight  of  grain  17  ounces. 

Length  of  ear  11  to  12  inches,  weight  of  grain  15  ounces. 

Length  of  ear  10  to  11  inches,  weight  of  grain  14  ounces. 

Length  of  ear  9  to  10  inches,  weight  of  grain  13  ounces. 

Length  of  ear  8  to  9  inches,  weight  of  gram  11.5  ounces. 

Length  of  ear  7  to  8  inches,  weight  of  gram  9.5  ounces. 

Length  of  ear  6  to  7  inches,  weight  of  grain  8  ounces. 

For  each  ounce  below  the  number  required  by  an  ear  of 
given  length  cut  the  exhibit  two  points. 

Testing  Corn  for  Viability 

Standard  for  germination,  95-98  per  cent. 

The  importance  of  making  germination  tests  of  corn  can- 
not be  emphasized  too  strongly,  since  seed  corn  will  often 
have  a  fair  outward  appearance  and  yet  germinate  poorly. 

When  the  germinating  power  of  corn  is  very  low,  and 
reliable  seed  is  hard  to  pick  out,  it  is  often  desirable  to  make 
germination  tests  of  each  ear  separately. 

To  do  this,  first  number  the  ears  by  slipping  a  piece  of 
cardboard  containing  the  number  between  two  rows.  Remove 
two  kernels  from  the  butt,  two  from  the  middle,  and  two 
from  the  tip  of  each  ear.  Then,  taking  the  germinator  de- 
scribed on  page  94,  mark  off  the  blotting  paper  in  the  bot- 
tom into  two-inch  squares,  numbering  each.  Now  put  the 
grains  from  each  ear  in  their  respective  squares,  and  allow  to 
germinate. 


48  CORN 

In  this  way  several  hundred  ears  may  be  tested  at  once. 

For  testing  a  large  lot  of  corn  in  the  ear  select  100  ears 
at  random  and  take  six  kernels  from  each  ear,  as  described 
above.  Corn  seems  to  germinate  more  poorly  near  the  butt 
than  at  any  other  point.  Place  seed  in  germinator.  Germina- 
tion should  begin  in  about  two  days  and  should  be  complete 
in  six. 

For  best  results  keep  temperature  as  near  80°  to  90°  F. 
as  possible,  and  never  let  fall  below  60°  F. 

Commercial  Grading  of  Corn 

The  grades  of  corn  are  usually  designated  as  "  White  Corn," 
"Yellow  Corn,"  or  in  case  of  a  mixture  of  the  two  (amount- 
ing to  more  than  25  per  cent)  it  is  simply  called  "  Corn." 

Usually  three  grades  of  white  and  yellow  corn  are  made 
and  four  grades  of  the  mixed  corn.  In  examining  and  grading 
corn  the  student  should  take  into  consideration  the  following 
points. 

Notes  on  tlir  Quality  of  Com 

Color.  No.  1  Corn  should  be  true  to  color,  but  in  grades 
2  and  3  considerable  mixture  is  allowed,  varying  from  10 
to  25  per  cent. 

Soundness.  Good  corn  should  not  only  be  thoroughly 
cleaned  up  but  should  also  be  reasonably  free  from  decayed 
or  cracked  kernels.  Cracked  kernels  often  indicate  that  the 
corn  was  damp  when  shelled.  Any  considerable  per  cent  of 
chaffy  or  shrunken  kernels  injures  both  the  feeding  and  mill- 
ing value  of  the  com. 

Moisture.  Corn  in  a  wet  or  heated  condition  cannot  be 
graded. 


STUDY  OF  SPECIES  AND  OF  CHARACTERS         49 

Go  over  each  sample  carefully  and  make  out  a  short  report 
on  each,  giving  first  the  commercial  grade,  and  then  the 
amount  of  mixture,  if  mixed,  also  the  kind  and  nature  of  any 
impurities  or  injury  the  grain  may  have  suffered  from  expo- 
sure, sprouting,  or  heating  in  crib  or  bin.  The  following  form 
of  report  is  suggested : 


Sample  No. 


Grade 


Remarks 


For  this  work  from  20  to  25  samples  of  corn  are  provided. 
These  should  include  samples  of  pure  yellow  and  white  corn 
of  the  various  grades,  in  various  stages  of  cleanliness,  damp- 
ness, etc.  Also  samples  of  mixed  corn,  starting  in  with  pure 
white  and  yellow  and  mixing  them  in  various  proportions. 

Com- Inspection  Rules  1 

No.  1  Yellow  Corn  shall  be  yellow,  sound,  dry,  plump, 
and  well  cleaned. 

No.  2  Yellow  Corn  shall  be  three  fourths  yellow,  dry, 
reasonably  clean,  but  not  plump  enough  for  No.  1. 

No.  3  Yellow  Corn  shall  be  three  fourths  yellow,  reason- 
ably dry,  and  reasonably  clean,  but  not  sufficiently  sound 
for  No.  2. 

No.  1  White  Corn  shall  be  sound,  dry,  plump,  and  well 
cleaned. 

1  Rules  adopted  by  the  Board  of  Railroad  and  Warehouse  Coniinission- 
ers  for  the  inspection  of  graiD  at  Chicago. 


50  CORN 

No.  2  White  Com  shall  be  seven  eighths  white,  dry,  reason- 
ably clean,  but  not  plump  enough  for  No.  1. 

No.  3  White  Corn  shall  be  seven  eighths  white,  reasonably 
dry,  and  reasonably  clean,  but  not  sufficiently  sound  for 
No.  2. 

No.  1  Corn  shall  be  mixed  corn  of  choice  quality,  sound, 
dry,  and  well  cleaned. 

No.  2  Corn  shall  be  mixed  corn,  dry  and  reasonably  clean, 
but  not  good  enough  for  No.  1. 

No.  3  Corn  shall  be  mixed  corn,  reasonably  dry  and  rea- 
sonably clean,  but  not  sufficiently  sound  for  No.  2. 

No.  4  Corn.  Corn  that  is  badly  damaged,  damp,  or  very 
dirty,  shall  be  graded  no  higher  than  No.  4. 

Corn  that  is  wet  or  in  heated  condition  shall  not  be 
graded. 


SECTION  III  — OATS 

CLASSIFICATION  OF  SPECIES 

Order Graminece 

Genus Avena 

Species Saliva 

The  cultivated  varieties  are  sometimes  classified  according 
to  the  form  of  the  panicle,  and  are  considered  by  some  bota- 
nists as  distinct  species.  The  "common  oat"  (Avena  sativa) 
comprises  those  varieties  having  spreading  panicles,  and  the 
"Tartarian  oat"  (Arena  orientalis)  comprises  varieties  with 
dose,  erect  panicles,  commonly  called  "side  oats,"  while  the 
other  is  called  "  branch  oats." 

There  is  also  a  type  (Avena  nuda)  from  which  the  hull  is 
removed  in  threshing.  Varieties  of  this  are  found  in  both  of 
the  above  groups. 

The  hulled  varieties  are  also  divided,  according  to  the 
color  of  the  hull,  into  white,  gray,  red,  and  black  oats. 

The  oat  differs  from  the  other  cereals  in  having  its  heads 
in  the  form  of  panicles  instead  of  spikes,  and  the  grain  is  not 
attached  directly  to  the  main  stem  of  the  plant. 

In  form  of  grain  and  height  of  straw  varieties  differ 
considerably. 

A  good  oat  grain  should  be  fairly  plump,  have  a  thin  hull, 
and  weigh  from  32  to  38  pounds  per  measured  bushel. 

The  stalk  should  be  of  medium  height  and  sufficiently 
strong  and  stiff  to  stand  erect. 

5] 


52 


OATS 


As  in  the  case  of  most  other  cereals,  the  varieties  of  oats 
arc  very  numerous  and  adapted  to  different  conditions. 

In  regard  to  yield  and  (juality  there  seems  to  be  in  general 
no  ]  (articular  difference  between  oats  of  different  color  or 

oats  with  open  or 
closed  panicles. 
The  differences 
seem  to  be  due 
solely  to  variety 
characteristics 
and  conditio'  - 
affecting  grow 
The  shape 
the  grain  v<f  ;s 
considerable  in 
different  varie- 
ties, some  being 
very  1<  >ng  and 
rather  slender, 
while  others  are 
of  a  short  and 
thicker  type. 

In  the  south- 
ern regions  the 
proportion   of 
hull  to  berry 
tends  to  increase. 
Remove  hulls  of  several  varieties  and  get  proportion  by 
weighing.    (Hulls  are  more  easily  removed  if  soaked  in  a 
dilute  solution  of      >tassium  hydrate  or  33  per  cent  alcohol 
for  a  few  mi 


Fig.  17.  Types  of  oat  heads  :    A,  panicled  oats; 
B,  side  oats 


LABORATORY  STUDY  OF  CHARACTERS     53 

The  feeding-  value  is  decreased  by  a  large  proportion  of 
hull.  The  proportion  of  hull  varies  with  its  thickness  and 
with  the  size  of  the  berry. 

LABORATORY  STUDY  OF  CHARACTERS 

Examine  in  head  samples  of  common  varieties  of  side  and 
panicled  oats. 

Draw  a  branch  and  two  or  three  spikelets. 

1  )issect  out  carefully  a  spikelet  and  draw  its  parts  in  their 
relative  position. 

Now  examine  each  head  carefully  and  note  down  its 
characteristics  in  the  "  Outline  for  describing  Oats,"  using 
the  list  of  descriptive  terms  as  a  guide. 

Terms  foe  describing  Oats 

Panicle 

Shape 

f  Open  (Fig.  17.  J). 

I  Spreading. 
1.  ■{ 

Compressed. 


[  Side  panicle  (Fig.  17,  B).      {  ]J""sr 
( 'ol 


2.      Length  (inches).  L  ^prowed. 


f  Whitish. 
Yellowish. 
Yellow  brown. 
1.  <J  Brown. 
Reddish. 
Black. 
Gray. 
Spikelet 

3    |  Spreading. 

I  Narrow. 
•J.      Number  of  grains,  1,  2,  3. 


54 


OATS 


Grain 
Shape 

f  Long  (Fig.  18,.4). 

1 .  -i  Medium. 

[  Short  (Fig.  18,  B). 
f  Cylindrical. 

2.  \  Conical  (Fig.  18,  B). 

L  Wedge-shaped  (Fig.  18,  .1). 
Crease 

r  Full. 

L  t  Deep. 

Weight  of  100  grains. 

Tip 

I  *f°*f  (Flg'  21'  J)'  1  Refers  to  extension  of  hull 
1.  <j  Medium.  ^      beyond  the  naked  berry. 

[Short  (Fig.  21,  B).  J 
f  Pointed  (Fig.  18,  A). 
~'  I  Blunt  (Fig.  18,  B). 
Hull 

1.      Percent. 
(  Wor 

f  Whitish. 
Yellowish. 
1.  <!  Brownish. 
Reddish. 
Black. 
Dorsal  awns 
r  Long. 
Medium. 
Short. 
None. 


I 

Co/or 


l.H 


f  Whitish. 

Brownish. 

Yellowish. 
[  Black. 
2.      Brown  or  black  at  base  and  lighter  at  tip. 


Adherent 


Glume 
Empty  Glume 


?  Adherent 

Glume, 


Fig.  18.  Oat  spikelets  and  grains.  The  upper  figures  show  an  entire  oat 
spikelet,  both  in  its  natural  form  and  when  torn  apart,  with  all  parts 
named.  The  lower  figures  show  two  types  of  oat  grains  :  A ,  long, 
pointed  ;  Z>,  short,  blunt 

55 


56  OATS 

Use  the  following  outline  in  describing  oats  in  head. 
Write  in  the  blank  space  under  the  number  of  the  oat  being 
described,  and  opposite  the  proper  heading,  the  term  which 
applies,  using  the  list  of  "  Terms  for  describing  Oats  "  as  a 
guide. 

Outline  for  describing  Oats 
Panicle 
Shajie 

1 

o 

( 'olor 

1 

Spikelet 

1 

o 

Grain 

Shape 

1 

o 

( 'rease 

1 

Weight  of  100  grains  (grams) 

Tip 

1 

2 
Hull 

1 

Color 

1 

Dorsal  awn 

1 

( 'olor 

1 

2 

Student's  Name Date 


LABORATORY   STUDY  OF  CHARACTERS 


57 


A  Study  of  the  Mature  Plant  of  Oats 

(Prepared  by  A.  T.  Wiancko,  Purdue  University) 

Use  the  material  provided  by  the  instructor,  and  describe 
according  to  the  following  outline : 

1.  Length  of  panicles  in  inches  (average  of  five  panicles  from 
base  of  lower  whorl  to  tip  of  flowering  glume  of  upper  spikelet) 

2.  Number  of  whorls  (average  of  five  panicles) 

o.  Number  of  main  branches  (average  of  five  panicles) 

4.  Variation  in  length  of  pedicel  of  spikelet to 

5.  Number  of  grains  per  spikelet 

6.  Relative  weight  of  1<  iwer  and  upper  grains  of  spikelet :  weight  of 
25  lower  grains ;  weight  of  25  upper  grains 

7.  Number  of  grains  (average  of  five  panicles) 

8.  Weight  of  grains  (average  of  five  panicles) ; 

weight  of  100  grains 

9.  Per  cent  of  kernel  :   weight  of  lot)  grains     ; 

weight  of  1<M>  kernels ;   per  cent 

10.  Plumpness:  plump,  medium,  inflated. 

1 1 .  Color  of  grain :  light  yellow,  yellow,  gray ,  reddish  brown,  black. 


■-■- 


t^1  Wm 


Fig.  19.    A  set  of  ten  samples  of  oats  ready  for  study.    The  cups 
hold  one  pint  each 


58 


OATS 


3  I 

z 


Examining  the  Quality  of  Oats 

For  this  exercise  ten  or  twelve  samples  in  cups  are  provided, 
as  in  the  work  with  wheats.    These  samples  should  include 

at  least  one  sample  of 
each  of  the  principal 
types,  and  should  ex- 
hibit as  wide  a  range 
of  qualities  as  possi- 
ble. First  fill  out  a 
card  for  each  sample, 
similar  to  Form  No. 
2,  giving  an  analysis 
of  each.  The  mean- 
ings of  all  the  terms 
are  apparent  enough 
not  to  require  ex- 
planation unless  it  be 
"  large,"  "  medium," 
and  "  small,"  under 
"  Size  of  Grain."  * 
This  data  is  only  in- 
tended to  give  some 
idea  of  the  uniform- 
ity in  size  of  grains  in 
the  particular  sample 
under  consideration, 
and  not  the  relative  size  when  all  varieties  are  considered. 
After  a  card  has  been  made  out  for  each  sample,  arrange 
the  samples  according  to  weight  per  bushel.  Explain  in  writing 


Eig.  20.    A  tin  pint  cup  filled  with  oats,  and 
the  report  card  made  out 


1  The  term  "grain  "  is  used  to  designate  the  hull  and  the  berry  it  contains. 


LABORATORY  STUDY  OF  CHARACTERS     59 

the  various  causes  to  which  the  light  weights  of  the  five 
lighter  samples  are  apparently  due. 

Make  out  a  written  statement  showing  which  is  the  best 
oat,  (a)  from  the  feeder's  standpoint ;  (/>)  from  the  seedsman's 
standpoint ;  (c)  from  the  miller's  standpoint. 

Report  Card 

Oats 

No. Variety 

Weight  per  bushel lbs. 

'  Whitish per  cent 

Yellowish per  cent 

Color  -J  Brownish...  per  cent 

Reddish... ;per  cent 

Black per  cent 

Size    f  Large per  cent 

of     i  Medium per  cent 

grain   [  Small  .....per  cent 

Weight  of  100  grains grams 

Hull per  cent 

Must 

Unsound  grain per  cent 

Foreign  matter per  cent 

Viability per  cent 

[Fokm  No.  2] 

Notes  on  the  Quality  of  Oats 

Mustiness.  Oats  should  be  free  from  must,  as  it  injures 
the  palatability  and  feeding  value  of  the  grain  ;  it  also  gives 
horses  a  cough. 

Purity.  Oats  should  be  fairly  clean,  but  more  foreign 
matter  is  allowed  in  oats  than  in  corresponding  grades  of 
other  grain. 


60 


OATS 


Aleurone  Layer 


Germ 

-Aleurone  Layer 
Palet 

Starch  Cells 
Seed  Coat 
Hull 


Aii  occasional  kernel  of  corn  or  wheat  is  not  so  objection- 
able in  a  grain  used  largely  for  feeding  purposes  as  in  a  grain 
for  milling.    Weed  steins  and  seeds  are  not  only  worthless 

but  may  give  a  bad  taste 
to  the  grain. 

Plumpness.  Other 
things  being  equal,  a 
plump  grain  is  always 
preferred,  since  it  usually 
has  a  less  proportion  of 
hull  and  consequently 
higher  feeding  value. 

Soun  dness.  Decayed 
and  weather-beaten  grain 
not  only  suffers  in  ap- 
pearance, but  the  feeding 
quality  is  injured,  since 
only  a  small  amount  is 
sufficient  to  injure  that 
sweet,  palatable  flavor 
which  bright,  clean  oats 
should  have. 

Weight.  When  differ- 
ent varieties  of  oats 
are  being  compared  the 
weight  per  bushel  is  not 
always  a  fair  indication  of  their  relative  value.  Some  varie- 
ties of  oats  have  an  awn  on  the  back  of  each  grain,  which 
prevents  the  grains  from  settling  together  closely  in  the 
measure  and  giving  a  high  weight  per  bushel,  although  the 
individual  grains  may  1»<J  of  the  best  quality.    Other  varieties 


Starch  Cells 
Aleurone  Layer 
Seed  Coat 


Fig.  21.  Structure  of  the  oat  grain.  The 
upper  figures  illustrate  a  short  thick  and 
long  slender  type  of  oat  grain.  They  are 
cut  through  at  the  crease.  The  lower 
figures  are  transverse  sections,  drawn 
to  scale 


LABORATORY  STUDY  OF  CHARACTERS 


61 


have  a  long  projection  of  the  hull  over  the  berry,  or  a  rough 
hull,  and  for  these  reasons  it  may  often  happen  that  a  smooth- 
grained,  awnless  variety  will  weigh  more  per  bushel  than  a 
rough-hulled,  awned  variety  of  oats,  although  the  individual 
grains  are  not  as  plump  or  well  developed.  Even  in  the  same 
variety  the  different  conditions  under  which  the  oats  may  be 
cut  and  threshed  will  affect  the  weight  per  bushel.  However, 
in  oat  varieties  of  similar  character  the  weight  per  bushel  may 
be  taken  as  a  fair  indication  of  feeding  value,  the  lighter  >oats 
having  a  larger  proportion  of  hull  to  berry  than  the  heavier. 


Judging  Oats 

First  score  the  ten  samples  used  in  the  last  exercise,  mak- 
ing use  of  the  same  data.  The  student  should  then  have 
access  to  a  general  collection  of  oat  samples.  It  is  much 
better  if  these  can  be  supplied  in  peck  or  half-bushel  lots. 

Score  Card  for  Oats 
Variety  Name Sample  Number 


Credit 

1 

2 

3 

4 

Uniformity,  20% 

(a)  In  color 

(?>)  In  size 

Quality,  80% 

(a)  Weight  per  bushel    . 

(h)  Soundness  and  dirt    . 

(c)  Per  cent  of  hull    . 

(d)  Size  of  grain    .... 

(e)  Must,  smut       .... 

10 
10 

25 
10 
25 

10 
10 

Total 

100 

Student's  Name Date. 


62  OATS 

Explanation  of  Score  Card 

In  this  score  card  oats  are  judged  entirely  from  the  feeder's 
standpoint.  It  is  not  possible  to  make  a  score  card  by  which 
an  oat  could  be  judged  at  the  same  time  from  both  the  feeder's 
and  the  miller's  standpoint,  and  also  judge  the  grain  for  seed. 
Different  points  would  be  used  in  each  case,  and  different 
values  given  them. 

Uniform  it ;i  in  Color.  Uniformity  in  color  and  size  are 
of  only  minor  importance  to  the  feeder.  Divide  the  sample 
according  to  the  color  of  the  grains.  Let  the  class  having  the 
largest  number  determine  the  color.  Cut  one  point  for  each 
two  per- cent  of  other  colors. 

Uniformity  in  Size.  Divide  the  sample  into  two  parts 
according  to  size  of  grain.  Estimate  per  cent  of  small  grains 
by  count.   Cut  one  point  for  each  four  per  cent  of  small  grains. 

Weight  per  Bushel.  The  weight  per  bushel  is  a  very  im- 
portant consideration  in  estimating  the  value  of  an  oat  for 
feeding  purposes.  A  heavy  weight  indicates  that  the  grain 
was  well  matured  and  filled  out.  In  the  same  variety  a 
heavy  oat  usually  has  a  less  per  cent  of  hull,  and  conse- 
quently a  higher  feeding  value  than  a  light  oat.  The  best 
oats  should  weigh  38  pounds  per  bushel.  Cut  one  point  for 
every  pound  light  down  to  32  pounds  per  bushel,  and  two 
points  for  every  pound  light  below  this. 

Soundness  and  Dirt.  Sprouted  or  decayed  grains  have 
little  more  value  than  so  much  trash,  and  may  be  regarded 
as  such  for  judging  purposes.  Separate  all  unsound  grains 
and  dirt,  estimate  the  per  cent  by  weight,  and  cut  two  points 
for  each  one  per  cent.  This  cut  is  not  limited  to  ten  points, 
but  may  be  indefinite. 


LABORATORY  STUDY  OF  CHARACTERS     63 

Per  Cent  of  Hull.  The  percentage  of  hull  varies  with  vari- 
eties, the  locality  in  which  the  oat  is  grown,  and  also  de- 
pends on  how  well  and  perfectly  the  grain  was  matured.  In 
growth  the  hull  and  bran  develop  first,  and  the  starch  is  de- 
posited last.  However,  if  from  any  cause  such  as  dry  weather, 
poor  soil,  injury  from  insects,  etc.,  the  grain  is  prevented 
from  maturing  perfectly,  the  development  of  the  starch  is 
somewhat  curtailed,  and  consequently  the  percentage  of  hull 
is  higher.  A  good  oat  may  have  as  high  as  30  per  cent  hull. 
Cut  two  points  for  every  per  cent  of  hull  above  this. 

Size  of  Grain.  Size  varies  greatly  with  varieties,  but  100 
grains  should  weigh  3  grams  in  heavy  oats.  Cut  one  point 
for  every  two  tenths  of  a  gram  less. 

Must  and  Sin  at.  If  must  or  smut  is  very  apparent,  the 
sample  should  be  cut  10  points. 

Commercial  Grading  of  Oats 

The  work  in  commercial  grading  is  carried  out  by  first  ex- 
amining a  set  of  samples  representing  the  commercial  grades. 

Then  as  large  a  set  of  miscellaneous  samples  as  possible 
should  be  examined  and  graded  according  to  official  inspection 
rules.  The  samples  previously  examined  in  studying  oats 
should  be  graded,  as  the  student  already  has  a  good  knowl- 
edge of  the  comparative  value  of  these. 

Oat  Inspection  Rules  l 

No.  1  White  Oats  shall  be  white,  sound,  clean,  and  reason- 
ably free  from  other  grain ;  weight  32  pounds. 

1  Rules  adopted  by  the  Board  of  Railroad  and  Warehouse  Commission- 
ers for  the  inspection  of  grain  at  Chicago. 


64  OATS 

No.  2  White  Oats  shall  he  seven  eighths  white,  sweet, 
reasonably  clean,  and  reasonably  free  from  other  grain; 
weight  28  pounds  or  above. 

No.  3  White  Oats  shall  be  seven  eighths  white,  but  not 
sufficiently  sound  and  clean  for  No.  2;  weight  22  pounds 
or  better. 

No.  4  White  Oats  shall  be  seven  eighths  white,  damp, 
badly  damaged,  musty,  or  for  any  other  cause  unfit  for 
No.  3. 

No.  1  White  Clipped  Oats  shall  be  white,  sound,  clean, 
reasonably  free  from  other  grain,  and  shall  weigh  not  less 
than  36  pounds  to  the  measured  bushel. 

No.  2  White  Clipped  Oats  shall  be  seven  eighths  white, 
sweet,  reasonably  clean,  reasonably  free  from  other  grain, 
and  shall  weigh  not  less  than  34  pounds  to  the  measured 
bushel. 

No.  3  White  Clipped  Oats  shall  be  seven  eighths  white, 
not  sufficiently  sound  or  clean  for  No.  2,  and  shall  weigh 
not  less  than  28  pounds  to  the  measured  bushel. 

No.  1  Oats  shall  be  mixed  oats,  sound,  clean,  and  reason- 
ably free  from  other  grain. 

No.  2  Oats  shall  be  sweet,  reasonably  clean,  and  reason- 
ably free  from  other  grain. 

No.  3  Oats  shall  be  mixed  oats,  not  sufficiently  sound  and 
clean  for  No.  2. 

No.  4  Oats  shall  be  all  mixed  oats  that  are  damp,  badly 
damaged,  musty,  or  for  any  other  cause  unfit  for  No.  3. 

In  examining  and  grading  the  samples  of  oats  take  up 
each  point  separately,  as  in  wheat,  making  notes  of  your 
observations  and  reporting  on  each  after  the  manner  of  the 
table  on  the  following  page. 


LABORATORY  STUDY  OF  CHARACTERS     65 


Number  ok 
Sample 

Grade 

Remarks 

1 

No.  2  Oats 

Weight  30  lb.  per  bushel ;  grains  plump  ; 
slight   mixture   of    barley ;    sweet  and 
bright. 

Testing  Oats  for  Purity 

Standard  for  purity  99  per  cent. 

Thoroughly  mix  the  oats  to  be  tested  and  take  out  about 
a  half-pint  sample.  Spread  this  on  a  table  and  carefully 
separate  out  the  impurities.  Then  find  by  weight  the  amount 
of  pure  seed,  as  well  as  the  foreign  matter,  and  from  this 
calculate  the  per  cent  of  purity. 

An  oat  sample  may  sometimes  contain  as  much  as  5  per  cent 
foreign  matter  and  still  pass  the  casual  observer  as  a  fairly 
clean  sample. 

Testing   Oats   for  Viability 

Standard  germination  95  per  cent. 

If  taking  a  sample  for  germination  from  a  bin,  do  not  take 
it  from  one  place,  but  mix  up  thoroughly  several  scoopfuls 
taken  from  different  parts  of  the  bin,  and  then  from  this  take 
a  small  sample  and  pick  out  at  random  100  grains.  Place  these 
in  a  germinating  apparatus  as  described  on  page  94. 

Moisten  daily  and  keep  at  a  temperature  of  80°  to  90°  F. 
Germination  should  begin  in  three  days.  As  soon  as  the 
radicle  is  one  fourth  inch  long  the  grain  has  germinated. 

Eemove  all  sprouted  grains  daily  until  germination  ceases. 
Then  by  counting  the  number  which  failed  to  sprout, 
and  subtracting  this  from  100,  you  have  the  per  cent  of 
germination. 


66  OATS 

HOT-WATER  TREATMENT  FOR  EITHER  LOOSE 
OR   COVERED   SMUT   IN   OATS1 

(Prepared  by  A.  N.  Hume,  University  of  Illinois) 

Place  a  sufficient  amount  of  seed  oats  in  a  bag  or  basket 
which  will  readily  admit  water,  and  immerse  for  ten  minutes 
in  hot  water  at  133°  F. ;  then  cool  quickly  by  immersing  in 
cold  water  or  by  stirring  thoroughly  while  drying. 

Having  treated  the  seed  oats  as  above,  make  a  duplicate 
germination  test  of  the  treated  seed,  and  also  a  duplicate  ger- 
mination test  of  untreated  seed  to  serve  as  a  check. 

Keport  as  follows : 

Treated  Seed 

Per  cent  of  germination  :   (1) ,  (2) ;  Av. 

Untreated  Seed 

Per  cent  of  germination  :   (1) .(2)  ;   Av. 

Does  the  hot-water  treatment  injure  the  vitality  of  the  seed? 

Student's  Name Date 

FORMALIN   TREATMENT  FOR  EITHER  LOOSE   OR 
COVERED   SMUT   IN   OATS1 

(Prepared  by  A.  N.  Hume,  University  of  Illinois) 

Treat  seed  by  sprinkling  or  immersion  for  30  minutes  with 
a  solution  of  1  pound  of  formalin  (40  per  cent  solution  of 
formaldehyde)  to  50  gallons  of  water. 

In  all  treatments  it  is  well  to  first  stir  the  seed  into  a  tub 
of  cold  water  and  skim  off  the  smut  balls  which  rise  to  the 
surface.  After  treatment  the  drying  may  be  hastened  by 
using  slaked  lime. 

1  This  treatment  can  also  be  used  for  stinking  smut  in  wheat. 


FORMALIN  TREATMENT  67 

Having  treated  a  sufficient  quantity  of  seed  oats  as  above, 
make  a  duplicate  germination  test  of  the  treated  seed,  and 
also  a  duplicate  germination  test  of  untreated  seed  to  serve 
as  a  check. 

Report  results  as  follows : 

Treated  Seed 

Per  cent  of  germination  :   (1) ,  (2) ;  Ay. 

Untreated  Seed 

Per  cent  of  germination  :   (1) ,  (2) ;  Av. 

Does  the  formalin  treatment  injure  the  vitality  of  the  seedV 
Student's  Name     Date 


SECTION  IV  — BARLEY 

CLASSIFICATION  OF  SPECIES  AND  VARIETIES 

Order Graminem 

Genus Horde  um 

Species Sativum 

Cultivated  barleys  include  a  number  of  types,  or  races, 
which  by  some  are  considered  as  subspecies  and  classified 
as  follows : 

(1)  Two-rowed  barley Hordeum  sativum  distichon 

(2)  Six -rowed  barley Hordeum  sativum  liexastichon 

The  two-rowed  barleys  commonly  grown  are  characterized 
by  their  large,  plump  grain.  In  Europe  these  barleys  are 
used  almost  exclusively  for  malting,  and  hence  the  name 
"  malting  barleys  "  has  come  to  be  generally  applied  to  them. 
However,  in  America  the  six-rowed  barleys  are  generally 
used  for  this  purpose. 

The  six-rowed  barleys  include  the  "  naked,"  or  "  hull-less  " 
varieties,  as  well  as  most  of  our  common  cultivated  barleys. 
The  six-rowed  barleys  are  generally  more  prolific  than  the 
two-rowed,  and  are  most  generally  grown  in  this  country. 
The  grains  of  six-rowed  barleys  are  smaller  and  not  so  plump 
as  those  of  the  two-rowed  barleys,  but  are  higher  in  nitrogen. 

The  varieties  of  barley  are  numerous,  but  only  a  compara- 
tively few  are  grown  in  the  United  States. 

68 


CLASSIFICATION  OF  SPECIES  AND  VARIETIES      69 


Carefully  examine  samples  of  each  of  the  above  types  of  bar- 
ley, including  samples  of  both  black  and  white  hulless  barley. 


Fig.  22.    Types  of  barley  spikes  :  A,  two-rowed  brewing  barley;  B,  six- 
rowed  hulless  barley 

Make  drawings  from  a  spike  of  each  type,  showing  the 
imbricated  view. 

Note  that  the  berry  of  ordinary  barley  is  tightly  inclosed 
by  the  flowering  glume,  called  the  "  hull,"  while  in  hulless 


70  BARLEY 

barleys  the  flowering  glume  and  palet  do  not  adhere  closely 
and  the  berry  is  free. 

In  this  respect  hulled  barley  is  similar  to  oats,  and  hulless 
to  wheat. 

LABORATORY  STUDY  OF  CHARACTERS 

Typical  samples  hi  the  spike  and  of  the  threshed  grain 
are  provided.  Carefully  describe  both  the  spike  and  grain 
uf  one  or  more  samples  of  the  principal  types  of  barley,  as 
the  two-,  four-,  and  six-rowed  barleys,  and  black  and  white 
hulless  barleys. 

The  characteristics  are  obvious  enough,  so  that  with  a 
little  careful  comparison  there  should  be  no  trouble  in  find- 
ing the  proper  adjective  in  the  descriptive  list. 

Use  the  outline  for  describing  barleys,  filling  it  out  care- 

fully. 

Terms  for  describing  Barleys 
Spike 

f  Two-rowed  (Fig.  22,  .4).  1  This  refers  to  the  number  of  rows 
1    1  f 

I  Six-rowed  (Fig.  22,  B).  J       of  grain  on  the  spike. 

f  Awned  (Fig.  22,  A). 

2.  1  Partly  awned  (Fig.  22,  B). 

^  Awnless. 

3.  Length  (inches). 

f  Open  (Fig.  22,  A).      1  Has   reference  to   howr  close  or  far 
4.^  Compact  (Fig.  22,  B).  )>      apart    the    spikelets    are    on   the 
^  Crowded.  J       rachis. 

Shape 

f  Tapering  toward  tip.       When  upper  spikelets  are  appressed. 

"i  When  spikelets  at  both  base  and  tip 

1.  I  Tapering  both  ways,     y      are  more  appressed  than  those  at 


j       middle. 


[  Uniform  (Fig.  22.  A  ). 


LABORATORY  STUDY  OF  CHARACTERS     71 

,  rTl.  ,    ,_.      __    .     1  When  terminal  spikelets  are  not  well 

f  Tip  acute  (Fig.  22,. 4).  V 

2.  J  J       filled  out. 

t  Tip  blunt  (Fig.  22,  £).    Terminal  spikelets  well  filled  out. 
f  Base  abrupt.  Basal  spikelets  well  filled  out. 

'"  1  Base  tapering.    "  Basal  spikelets  not  well  filled  out. 

4.      Sterile  spikelets,  1,  2,  8,  etc. 


( 'olor 


1. 


f  Whitish. 
Yellowish. 
Yellowish  brown. 
Brown. 
Black. 


Awns 


C  Long  (length  5  inches  or  more). 
1.  <|  Medium  (length  3  to  5  inches). 

I  Short  (length  less  than  3  inches). 

f  Parallel  (Fig.  22,  B).  1   Refers  to  the  relative  position 

I  Spreading  (Fig.  22,  A).         J       of  the  awns  to  the  head. 

1  This  refers  to  the  dropping  of 

f  Deciduous.  the  awns  at  maturity.     The 

3.^  Partly  deciduous(Fig.  '22,  B).  y      awns  all   drop  off  on  some 


[Persistent  (Fig.  22,  .4). 


varieties,    while    on    others 
they  are  very  persistent. 


Color 


Whitish. 

Yellowish. 
1  Brownish. 
[  Black. 

Spikelet 

(This  is  not  a  spikelet  in  the  botanical  sense,  but  really  a  mesh  of  three 
spikelets.) 

1.  Number  grains  per  spikelet  (1,  2,  3). 

2.  Number  of    sterile   flowers.     (Refers  to  sterile   flowers   in  a 
spikelet.) 


72 


BARLEY 


Size 

f  Broad  (Fig.  23,  C).  ~)  This  depends  largely  on  the  shape 

1.  •<  Medium  (23,  B).  f>      of  the  grain  and  how  well  it  is 

[Narrow  (Fig-  23,  .4).  J       developed. 

Outer  Glume.   (In  barleys  these  are  very  narrow  and  pointed.) 


f  Awned  (Fig.  23,  B). 
1.  <  Awn-pointed. 

[Awnless  (Fig.  23,  D). 

Grain 


The  outer  or  empty  glume  should 
not  be  confused  with  the  flower- 
ing or  seed-bearing  glume. 


(  Inclosed  in  flower 
1 .  i       ing  glume. 
^  Free  (naked). 


1  This  is  the  distinguishing  characteristic 
between  the  naked  or  hulless  barley 
and  the  ordinary  kind.  In  the  latter 
the  grain  is  so  tightly  inclosed  that 
it  is  not  freed  in  threshing:. 


Fig.  23.  Types  of  barley  spikelets  :  A,  spikelet  from  two-rowed  barley ; 
B,  spikelet  from  six-rowed  barley ;  C,  a  six-rowed  hulless  barley ; 
D,  a  white  hulless  and  awnless  barley ;  E  shows  a  barley  spikelet 
torn  apart 


LABORATORY  STUDY  OF  CHARACTERS 


73 


r  Hard.         1  This  point  i 


I 


Mediun 
Soft. 


most  easily  determined  by  biting  or 
cutting  the  grains  and  comparing  with  standard 
J       samples. 


Shape 


1. 


Long. 
Medium. 


^  Short. 


f  Thin. 
'2.  i  Medium. 
I  Plump. 


1  Different  varieties  of  barley  show  considerable 
variation  in  size  and  ratio  of  length  to  diameter. 
Pick  out  about  six  typical  grains  to  examine 
for  these  points. 


Crease 


(  Deep. 
1 .  i  Mediun 

[Full. 


Cut  cross  sections  of  several  t}^pical  grains. 


( 'ross  section 


f  Horny. 

1 J  Dull. 
^  Starchy 


i  This  point  is  determined  by  making  cross  sec- 
tions and  examining  carefully.     Where  only 

[  part  of  the  grains  show  one  characteristic 
and  the  rest  some  other,  the  per  cent  of  each 
kind  should  be  expressed. 


Color 


1    i 


f  Black. 
Purple. 
Purplish. 

Brown. 

Yellowish 

Whitish. 


When  black  hulless  barleys  are  fully  matured 
they  are  purplish  black  in  color,  but  when  cut 
very  green  they  are  often  a  yellowish  white 
in  color,  with  only  a  tinge  of  purple. 


Weight  of  100  grain* 


grams 


74  BARLEY 

Outline  foe  describing  Barleys 

Spike 

1 

2 

3      . 

4 

Shape 

1 

9 

3!!ZZZZZZZZZ '.'..' 

4 

Color 

1 

Awns 

1 : 

2 

3 

Color 

1 

Spikelet 

1 

o 

Size 

1 

Outer  Glunu 

1 

Grain 

1 

o 

Shape 

i :. 

2 

Crease 

1 

Cross  section 

1 

Color 

1 

Weight  of  100  (/rains  (grams) 


LABORATORY  STUDY  OF  CHARACTERS     75 

Examining  the  Quality  of  Barley 

Fur  this  exercise  some  ten  samples  of  barley  are  provided 
in  cups.  The  widest  possible  range  of  type  and  quality 
should  be  included.  First  fill  out  a  report  card  for  barley, 
Form  No.  3,  for  each  sample.  The  card  gives  an  analysis 
of  the  sample.  By  using  the  score  card  the  value  of  the 
sample  from  a  brewer's  standpoint  may  be  obtained. 

Report  Card 
Barley 

Xo Variety 

Weight  per  bushel.. lb. 

r  Good  color per  cent 

Color        <  Somewhat  discolored per  cent 

t  Badly  discolored per  cent 

Vitreous per  cent 

Starchy per  cent 

f  Large per  cent 

Size  i  0       n 

I  Small per  cent 

Berries  exposed  or  cracked  through  injury  in  threshing per  cent 

Sprouted  (number) per  cent 

Bin  burnt,  decayed,  etc. per  cent 

Weight  of  100  grains grams 

Foreign  matter per  cent 

Viability per  cent 

[Form  No.  3] 

Using  Report  Card  for  Barley.  The  weight  per  bushel 
will  have  to  be  obtained  from  a  large  sample  by  the  ordinary 
method  (see  pp.  98,  99).  For  obtaining  the  rest  of  the  data 
see  the  "Explanation  of  the  Score  Card."  The  viability  can 
only  be  obtained  by  testing  the  sample  in  a  germinator. 


Texture  i 


76  BARLEY 

In  judging  barley  from  the  brewer's  standpoint  only  good 
unbleached  samples  can  be  used,  while  from  a  feeder's  stand- 
point a  slight  discoloration  would  be  no  objection. 

The  price  of  white  barley  is  governed  by  the  brewing 
qualities  of  the  grain.  Any  discoloring  or  bleaching  dis- 
qualifies it  for  this  purpose. 

A  few  points  to  be  observed  in  grading  barleys  are  as 
follows : 

Notes  on  the   Quality  of  Barley 

Color.  White  barleys  should  be  a  clear,  light  color,  with 
no  tint  of  yellow  or  brown. 

Bleaching  and  discoloring  caused  from  exposure  to  the 
weather  is  probably  the  most  common  cause  of  injury  to 
white  barleys.  Bleaching  not  only  disqualifies  barley  for 
malting  purposes  by  injuring  the  color  of  the  product,  but 
the  wetting  and  drying  which  the  grain  is  subjected  to 
when  bleached  injures  its  malting  properties. 

Black  barleys  when  fully  matured  are  usually  a  blue  black, 
but  if  harvested  before  fully  matured,  many  of  the  grains 
will  be  brownish,  with  varying  degrees  of  purple  or  blue, 
shading  to  almost  black. 

Texture.  The  texture  of  barleys  varies  from  quite  hard 
and  horny  (vitreous  in  appearance)  to  a  crumbly  texture, 
white  and  very  starchy. 

A  good  way  to  examine  both  the  texture  and  hardness  of 
a  barley  at  the  same  time  is  to  bite  several  grains  in  two. 
The  difference  in  hardness  and  texture  is  directly  correlated 
with  the  variation  hi  protein  content.  The  very  soft  and 
starchy  barleys  contain  the  least  proteids,  about  8  or  10  per 


LABORATORY  STUDY  OF  CHARACTERS 


77 


cent,  while  barleys  with  a  hard,  horny  texture,  and  usually 
vitreous  appearance,  sometimes  contain  as  high  as  15  per 
Gent  proteids. 

Size  and  Weight  of  100  Grains.  The  grains  of  two-rowed 
barleys  are  larger  than  the  grams  of  six-rowed  barleys. 
Large-grained  barleys,  even  of  the  same  type,  seem  to  be 
generally  more  starchy  and  contain  less  protein  than  the 
smaller-sized  grains.  It  is  for  this  reason  that  the  German 
brewers  select  the  large-grained,  two-rowed  barleys,  and 
American  brewrers  the 
smaller-grained,  six-rowed 
barleys. 

Brewing  Qualities. 
German  brewers  generally 
prefer  barleys  of  very  low 
proteid  content,  —  from 
7  to  9  per  cent.  How- 
ever, American  brewers 
are  using  with  good  suc- 
cess many  western  and 
northern  barleys  con- 
taining as  high  as  12  to 
14  per  cent  proteids. 

The  difference  in  opinion  seems  to  be  due  largely  to  the 
difference  in  methods  of  brewing,  and  the  special  qualities 
sought  for  in  the  two  countries.  For  example,  in  America 
large  quantities  of  corn  or  rice  are  used  with  the  barley  in 
brewing,  which  necessitates  the  use  of  a  barley  of  much 
higher  diastatic  power  than  is  required  in  Europe  where  the 
barley  alone  is  used. 


Fig.  24.  A  half-bushel  galvanized  iron 
box  used  in  storing  grain  samples  ; 
also  used  in  the  general  practice  work 
of  judging  and  grading  grains 


78 


BARLEY 


Variety  Name. 


Judging  Barley 

Score  Card  for  Barley 

Number  of  Exhibit. 


Credit 

Uniformity,  50', 

(«)  Color 

(/>)  Texture 

(c)  Size 

Quality,  50% 

(a)  Weight  per  bushel  . 

(/;)  Injury  in  threshing       .      . 

(c)  Sprouted,  bin-burned, 

decay,  etc 

(jl)  Foreign  matter  .... 

20 
20 
10 

10 
15 

15 

10 

Total 

100 

Student's  Name Date. 


Explanation  of  Score   Card 

Barley  is  judged  entirely  from  the  brewer's  standpoint, 
since  it  is  the  brewing  qualities  of  a  barley  that  determine 
its  market  value.  Brewing  barley  sells  10  to  20  per  cent 
higher  than  feeding  barley.  In  judging  barley  the  following 
characteristics  are  taken  into  consideration. 

Uniformity.  Whatever  the  character  or  the  variety  of  a 
barley  may  be,  it  is  very  important  that  it  be  uniform  in 
quality.  For  example,  in  germination  it  is  essential  that  all 
the  grains  germinate  at  one  and  the  same  time ;  but  if  part 
of  the  barley  germinates  in  thirty  hours,  part  in  forty  hours, 


LABORATORY  STUDY  OF  CHARACTERS      79 

and  part  in  sixty  hours,  it  is  not  as  valuable  for  malting 
purposes  as  a  barley  which  germinates  uniformly  at  some 
one  period.  Where  a  barley  has  been  exposed  to  the  weather 
until  considerably  damaged,  part  of  the  grains  may  be 
sprouted,  part  more  or  less  affected,  and  another  part  unin- 
jured. Such  a  barley  cannot  germinate  evenly.  Though  it 
may  have  been  a  first-class  barley  of  heavy  weight  to  begin 
with,  it  is  not  as  valuable  for  malting  purposes,  as  a  lighter 
barley  of  uniform  sprouting  qualities.  For  similar  reasons 
barley  should  be  uniform  in  color,  variety,  size  of  grain,  age, 
storage  conditions,  etc. 

Uniformity  in  Color.  Separate  a  sample  int< >  two  or  three 
parts  according  to  color,  i.e.  different  degrees  of  discoloring. 
Let  the  class  having  the  highest  number  determine  the  color 
of  the  sample,  and  cut  one  point  for  each  one  per  cent  in 
other  classes. 

Uniformity  in  Texture.  Barleys  have  both  horny  and 
starchy  textures,  the  same  as  wheats.  For  brewing  purposes 
they  should  all  be  uniformly  one  or  the  other.  Divide  the 
sample  into  two  parts  according  to  texture  and  hardness  of 
berries.  Let  the  part  having  the  highest  number  determine 
the  classification  of  the  sample,  and  cut  one  point  for  each 
one  per  cent  of  other  kind. 

Uniformity  in  Size.  Divide  the  sample  into  two  parts, 
according  to  size  of  grain.  Let  the  part  having  the  largest 
volume  or  weight  determine  the  classification,  and  cut  one 
point  for  each  two  per  cent  of  other  sizes. 

Weight  per  Bushel.  Good  malting  barley  should  weigh 
from  40  to  50  pounds  per  bushel.  While  a  heavy-weight  bar- 
ley usually  lias  a  less  per  cent  of  hull  and  a  higher  per 
cent    of    starch,   yet   other    considerations   are   of   so   much 


80 


BARLEY 


importance  that  a  forty-pound  barley  may  easily  outsell  a 
much  heavier  one.  Barleys  are  largely  sold  by  sample.  How- 
ever, other  things  being  equal,  a  heavy  barley  is  preferred. 

Cut  one  point  for  each 
pound  below  45  pounds 
per  bushel. 

Injury  in    Threshing. 
If    barley    is    threshed 
too  "  close,"  many  of  the 
awns  will  be  broken  so 
short  that  the  tip  of  the 
berry  will  be  exposed 
or  the  hull  will  be  split 
down   the   back.    Grains 
so  injured  absorb  water 
rapidly  and  do  not  malt 
uniformly    with    unin- 
jured grains.     Cut  one  point  for  each  per  cent  so  injured. 
Sprouted,  Bin-Burned,  or  Decayed    Groins.    Estimate  by 
counting  and  cut  one  point  for  each  one  per  cent  off. 

Foreign  Matter.  Estimate  per  cent  by  weight  and  cut 
one  point  for  each  one  per  cent. 

Commercial  Grading  of  Barley 

The  work  in  commercial  grading  is  carried  out  by  first 
examining  a  set  of  standard  samples  representing  the  com- 
mercial grades ;  then  as  large  a  set  of  miscellaneous  samples 
as  possible  should  be  examined  and  graded  according  to 
official  inspection  rules.  The  samples  previously  examined 
in  studying  barley  should  be  graded,  as  the  student  already 
has  a  good  knowledge  of  these. 


Fig.  25. 


A  view  of  the  laboratory 
storeroom 


LABORATORY   STUDY   OF   CHARACTERS  81 

Barley  Inspection  Hales1 

No.  1  Barley  shall  be  sound,  plump,  bright,  clean,  and  free 
from  all  other  grain. 

No.  2  Barley  shall  be  of  healthy  color,  not  sound  enough 
and  plump  enough  for  No.  1,  reasonably  clean,  and  reason- 
ably free  from  other  gram. 

No.  3  Barley  shall  include  slightly  shrunken  and  other- 
wise slightly  damaged  barley  not  good  enough  for  No.  2. 

No.  4  Barley  shall  include  all  barley  fit  for  malting  pur- 
poses not  good  enough  for  No.  3. 

No.  5  Barley  shall  include  all  barley  which  is  badly 
damaged  or  for  any  reason  is  unfit  for  malting  purposes, 
except  that  barley  which  has  been  chemically  treated  shall 
not  be  graded  at  all. 

Black  Barley.  The  grades  Nos.  1,  2,  3,  and  4  Black  Bar- 
ley shall  conform  in  all  respects  to  grades  Nos.  1,  2,  3, 
and  4  Barley,  except  they  shall  be  of  the  black  varieties  of 
barley. 

In  examining  and  grading  barleys  the  brewing  and  feeding 
qualities  should  be  kept  in  mind.  Note  with  care  the  color, 
texture,  and  brewing  and  feeding  qualities  of  each  sample. 
Report  on  these  points  with  the  grade  of  the  sample,  after  the 
following  manner: 


Number  of 
Sample 

({HADE 

Remarks 

o 

No.  3  Barley 

Plump  but  quite  bleached  ;  good  feeding- 
value. 

1  Rules  adopted  by  the  Board  of  Railroad  and  Warehouse  Commission- 
ers for  the  inspection  of  grain  at  Chicago. 


BARLEY 


Testing  Barley  fob   Purity  and  Viability 

In  testing  barley  for  purity  and  germination  follow  the 
directions  given  fur  oats. 

Testing  Uniformity  of  Germination  in  Barley 

All  seed  grains,  as  barley,  wheat,  or  oats,  should  germinate 
strongly  and  uniformly.  Take  three  or  four  different  samples 
of  barley,  such  as  a  good  bright  one,  one  that  has  suffered 
more  or  less  from  exposure,  and  one  badly  damaged  by  field 
exposure  ;  also  mixed  lots,  as  a  mixture  of  two-rowed  barley, 
brewing  barley  from  the  Pacific  coast,  and  a  Wisconsin  six- 
rowed  barley.  A  grain  is  considered  germinated  when  the 
radicle  is  one  fourth  inch  long.  Carefully  germinate  100  or 
more  grains  of  each  sample,  and  report  as  follows : 

Report  on  Germination  of  Barleys 


z 

z    2 

-  -r. 

-  - 

i  B 

Number  of  Seeds  Germikated 

© 

© 

Kg 

n  < 
Siz; 

to 

z 

© 
© 

i 

CO 

43 

© 
o 

© 

i 

-r 

© 

S-i 

60-72  hr. 

Per  cent 

u 

i 

© 
© 

© 

Oh 

4 

< 

fci 



Draw  curves  on  coordinate  paper  showing  the  rate  and 
uniformity  of  germination  for  each  sample. 


SECTION  V  — HAY  PLANTS 

LABORATORY  STUDY  OF  CHARACTERS 

The  following  outline  is  used  in  the  study  of  common  cul- 
tivated grasses  and  millets.  By  following  the  outline  one's 
attention  is  called  to  the  distinguishing  characteristics  of 
each  kind,  giving  not  only  a  means  of  identification  but  a 
good  knowledge  of  the  grass. 

(  Outline  for  describing  Grasses 

The  stt  m  and  /tares 

Height 

Color  of  stem 

Color  of  leaves 

Number  of  leaves 

Head 

Awned  or  awnless 

Panicled,  compact,  or  spiked 

Size  (give  length  and  diameter) 

Color  of  awns 

Color  of  chaff 

Root 

Does  it  spread  from  rootstocks? 

Is  it  a  sod-forming  or  hunch  grass? 

Seeds 

Size  (give  average  length  in  inches) , 

Color  (general  color) 

General  Notes 

Is  seed  free  or  inclosed  in  scales? 

Weight  per  bushel 

Amount  sown  per  acre - 

Vitality 

Drawings  of  Seeds.  Make  drawing  from  convex  side. 
Make  drawing  of  cross  section. 

83 


84  HAY  PLANTS 

Commercial  Grading  of  Hay 
Hay  and  Strati-  Inspection  Rules1 

Choice  Timothy  Hay  shall  be  Timothy  not  mixed  with 
over  one  twentieth  other  grasses,  properly  cured,  bright 
natural  color,  sound,  and  well  baled. 

No.  1  Timothy  Hay  shall  be  Timothy  not  more  than 
one  fifth  mixed  with  other  tame  grasses,  properly  cured, 
good  color,  sound,  and  well  baled. 

No.  2.  Timothy  Hay  shall  include  Timothy  not  good 
enough  for  No.  1,  not  over  one  third  mixed  with  other  tame 
grasses,  sound,  and  well  baled. 

No.  3  Timothy  Hay  shall  include  all  hay  not  good  enough 
for  other  grades,  sound,  and  well  baled. 

No.  1  Clover  Mixed  Hay  shall  be  Timothy  and  Clover 
mixed,  with  at  least  one  half  Timothy,  good  color,  sound,  and 
well  baled. 

No.  2  Clover  Mixed  Hay  shall  be  Timothy  and  Clover 
mixed,  with  at  least  one  third  Timothy,  reasonably  sound, 
and  well  baled. 

No.  1  Clover  Hay  shall  be  medium  Clover,  not  over  one 
twentieth  other  grasses,  properly  cured,  sound,  and  well  baled. 

No.  2  Clover  Hay  shall  be  Clover,  sound,  well  baled,  not 
good  enough  for  No.  1. 

No  Grade  Hay  shall  include  all  hay  badly  cured,  musty, 
stained,  threshed,  or  in  any  way  unsound. 

Choice  Prairie  Hay  shall  be  Upland  Hay  of  bright 
color,  well  cured,  sweet,  sound,  and  reasonably  free  from 
weeds. 

1  Rules  adopted  by  the  Chicago  Board  of  Trade  for  the  inspection  of 
bay  and  straw. 


LABORATORY  STUDY  OF  CHARACTERS     85 

No.  1  Prairie  Hay  shall  be  Upland,  and  may  contain  one 
quarter  Midland  of  good  color,  well  cured,  sweet,  sound,  and 
reasonably  free  from  weeds. 

No.  2  Prairie  Hay  shall  be  Upland  of  fair  color,  or  Mid- 
land of  good  color,  well  cured,  sweet,  sound,  and  reasonably 
free  from  weeds. 

No.  3  Prairie  Hay  shall  be  Midland  of  fair  color,  or 
slough  of  good  color,  well  cured,  sound,  and  reasonably  free 
from  weeds. 

No.  4  Prairie  Hay  shall  include  all  hay  not  good  enough 
for  other  grades,  and  not  caked. 

No  Grade  Prairie  Hay  shall  include  all  hay  not  good 
enough  for  other  grades. 

No.  1  Straight  Rye  Straw  shall  be  in  large  bales,  clean, 
bright,  long  Rye  Straw,  pressed  in  bundles,  sound,  and  well 
baled. 

No.  2  Straight  Rye  Straw  shall  be  in  large  bales,  long- 
Rye  Straw,  pressed  in  bundles,  sound  and  well  baled,  not 
good  enough  for  No.  1. 

Tangled  Rye  Straw  shall  be  reasonably  clean  Rye  Straw, 
good  color,  sound,  and  well  baled. 

Wheat  Straw  shall  be  reasonably  clean  Wheat  Straw, 
sound,  and  well  baled. 

Oat  Straw  shall  be  reasonably  clean  Oat  Straw,  sound, 
and  well  baled. 

Examining  Hay  or  Straw.  With  a  sharp  hay  knife  cut 
the  bale  or  pile  of  hay  or  straw  in  two.  Then  cut  off  a 
section  about  five  inches  thick.  Carefully  save  the  section 
removed,  and  separate  into  its  various  parts,  as  Timothy, 
Clover,  weeds,  etc.   Determine  the  amount  of  each  by  weight. 


86 


HAY  PLANTS 


Fig.  20.    A  student  identifying  clover  seed 


Identification  of  Clover  and  Grass  Seeds 


There  is  no  work  which  requires  more  careful  attention 
or  is  more  valuable  than  the  identification  of  grass  and  clover 

seeds,  and  separating  them  from 
their  adulterants. 

For  examining  the  seeds  a  small 
tripod  lens  is  very  useful.  Use  the 
following  artificial  key,  which  is 
not  intended  to  describe  the  seed 
but  simply  calls  attention  to  the 
most  prominent  characteristics  of 
each  variety.  It  is  much  better 
to  first  learn  to  identify  by  use 
of  the  key   than  by  use  of  the 


Fig.  27.    Tripod  lens  used  in 
identifying  seeds 


drawings. 


LABORATORY  STUDY  OF  CHARACTERS  87 

Key  for  Identification  of  Glover  Seeds 

Seed  free  (not  inclosed  in  pod) 

Seed  bean-shaped 

Color,  pinkish,  \  in.  long Crimson  Clover 

Color,  mostly  yellow;   large  seeds  are  kidney  shaped Alfalfa 

(Turkestan  alfalfa  is  same,  but  slate  colored.) 

Seeds  larger  and  more  regular  than  in  alfalfa Burr  Clover 

Color,  dark  yellow  to  brown Yellow  Trefoil 

Seed  oval-oblong 

Color,  yellow  ;  seed  notched  near  one  end Bokhara  Clover 

Seed  heart-shaped 

Color,  yellow  to  brown White  Clover 

Color,  dark  green  to  black Alsike  Clover 

Seed  somewhat  triangular 

Color,  yellow  to  brownish Red  Clover 

Seed  inclosed  in  pod 

Pod  large  and  corrugated,  \  in.  long- 
Color,  brown  ;  seed,  bean-shaped Sainfoin 

Pod  whitish,  \  in.  long 

Color,  yellow  ;   seed  oval,  notched  near  end 

Yellow  Sweet  Clover 

Pod  brown,  \  in.  long- 
Color,  dark  brown,  seed  mottled Japan  Clover 

Key  for  Identification  of  Grass  Seeds 

Seeds  distinctly  awned 

Seed  \  in.  or  more  in  length 

Very  hairy  or  pubescent,  flat,  thin.    Meadow  Foxtail 

Awns  attached  at  tip Annual  Rye  Grass 

Awns  long,  twisted,  attached  near  base 

Tall  Meadow  Oat  Grass 
Seeds  less  than  {  in.  long- 
Small  brownish  seed Sheep  Fescue 


Fig.  28.    Crimson  clover:  A,  magni- 
fied seeds  ;  C,  natural  size 


Fig.  20.  Alfalfa :  A,  magnified  seeds, 
(d)  short  type,  (e)  long,  curved  type ; 
B,  magnified  seed  pod  ;  C,  natural  size 


Fig.  30.    Yellow  trefoil:   A,  magni- 
fied seeds ;  B,  magnified  seed  pod  ;      Fig.  31 .    White'clover :    A ,  m  a g n  i f  i e d 
C,  natural  size  seeds ;  C,  natural  size 


Fig.  32.  Bokhara 
clover:  i.mas;- 

i lifted  seeds;  B,  < 

magnified  seed  Fig.  33.  Alsike  clover:  A, 
pod  ,  CY,  natural  magnified  seeds  ;  C,  natural 
size  size 

88 


f)K^  ■ 


Fig.  34.    Red  clover :  A,  magnified      Fig.  35.   Sainfoin:  A, magnified 

seeds  ;    i>,  magnified   seed  pod  ;  seed  ;   B,  magnified  seed  pod  ; 

C,  natural  size  C,  natural  size 


Fig.  36.  Sweet  clover  :  A,  magnified  Fig.  37.  Japan  clover :  A,  mag- 
seeds  ;  B,  magnified  seed  pod  ;  C,  nified  seeds  ;  B,  magnified  seed 
natural  size  pod  •   C,  natural  size 

89 


90  HAY   PLANTS 

Short-awned  or  awn-pointed 

Small,  dark  In-own  seeds,  very  rough  near  tip 

Crested  Dog's-Tail 

fin.  long,  smooth,  light  colored Wheat  Grass 

\  in.  or  less  in  length  Orchard  Grass 

Awnless 

|  in.  long  or  thereabout,  nerves  very  prominent.. ..Bronie  Grass 
About  I  in.  long  r  Note  difference  in  shape  i  Perennial  Rye  Grass 

light  brown...  ^     and  size  of  raehilla      j  Meadow  Fescue 

Hard,  smooth  seeds,  about  \  in.  long- 
Dark  brown  color Johnson  Grass 

f  in.  long  or  less 

Keel  rough,  sawlike Redtop 

Keel  not  commonly  rough Kentucky  Blue  Grass 

Seed  free  from  glumes,  polished 

Very  small,  fa  in.  in  length,  polished Timothy 

Key  for  Identification  of  Millet  Seeds 

Seeds  ovoid,  flattened  on  one  side,  ami  inclosed  in  glumes,  usually 
shiny,  from  fa  to  fa  in.  in  length 

S.-ed  red  or  pink Siberian  Millet 

Seed  yellow German  Millet 

Seed  mostly  black Hungarian  Grass 

Seed  dull  brown,  outer  covering  loose  and  rough 

Japanese  Barnyard  Millet 
Seed  brownish  yellow  (varieties  of  this  millet  are  white 

and  others  red) Broomcorn  Millet 


-**  Wo    W^    ^.   X^b 

Fig.  38.  Millet  seeds  :  (a)  Japanese  Millet  (Panicum  crus-galli)  ; 
(b)  German  millet  (Chastochloa  italica) ;  (c)  Siberian  millet  (Chse- 
tochloa  italica);  (d)  Hungarian  millet  (Chsetochloa  italica); 
(e)  Broomcorn  millet  (Panicum  miliaceum) 


w~~ 


Fk;.  31).    Meadow  foxtail  :  A,  magni- 
fied seeds  ;  B,  natural  size 


Fig.  40.  Annual  rye  grass  :  A, 
magnified  seeds  ;  B,  natural 
size 


v  \ 

B 

Fig.  41.    Tall  meadow  oat  grass  :  A,      Fig.  42.    Sheep  fescue  :  A,  mag- 
magnified  seeds  ;  B,  natural  size  nified  seeds  ;  B,  natural  size 

01 


Fig.43.  Crested  dog's-tail:  .^mag- 
nified seeds;  B,  natural  size 


Fig.  45.    Orchard  grass:  A,   magni- 
fied seeds  ;  B,  natural  size 


Pig.  44.    Wheat  grass:    J.,  mag-      Fig.  40.    Brome grass:   A,  magnified 

nified  seeds;  B,  natural  size  seeds;  7>,  natural  size 


92 


Fig.  47.  Perennial  rye  grass: 
A,  magnified  seeds;  B,  nat- 
ural size 


Fig.  48.    Meadow  fescue :   A, 

magnified  seeds;  2?, natural 
size 


Fig.  49.  Johnston  grass:  A, 
magnified  seeds ;  B,  natural 
size 


Fig.  50.  Red  top:  A,  mag- 
nified seeds;  B,  natural 
size 


Fig.  51.   Kentucky  blue  grass :      Fig.  52.    Timothy:    A,    mag- 
A ,  magnified  seeds  ;  B,  nat-  n  i  f  i  e  d  seeds;  B,  natural 

ural  size  size 


93 


SEED  TESTING 

APPARATUS  FOR  GERMINATING  SEEDS 

Germination  tests  are  easily  made,  even  with  the  simplest 
apparatus. 

A  seed  incubator  is  generally  made  on  the  plan  of  an  oven, 
double  walled,  and  often  covered  with  asbestos.  The  space 
between  the  double  walls  may  be  rilled  with  water.  This  is 
usually  heated  with  a  gas  jet  or  lamp  so  arranged  that  a 
fairly  constant  temperature  can  be  maintained. 

The  seeds  are  placed  in  trays,  between  or  upon  moist  blot- 
ting papers,  and  kept  in  the  incubator,  which  is  closed  up  in 
order  to  produce  a  moist  atmosphere  until  germination  is 
complete.  The  best  temperature  for  germinating  most  cereal 
seeds  is  between  80°  and  90°  F.,  but  grass  seeds  should  not 
be  heated  above  70°,  and  the  temperature  should  daily  be 
reduced  to  50°. 

Homemade  Germinatoks 

One  of  the  simplest  and  most  practical  germinators  can 
be  made  by  taking  two  common  dinner  plates  and  placing 
in  the  bottom  of  one  of  them  two  or  three  layers  of  filter 
paper  or  other  absorbent  and  thoroughly  wetting  it.  Place 
the  seeds  to  be  tested  on  top  of  this.  If  the  seeds  are  large, 
as  corn  or  wheat,  you  may  cover  them  with  blotting  paper 
or  a  cloth,  though  this  is  not  necessary.  Small  seeds,  such  as 
clover  or  grass,  do  better  if  not  covered. 

94 


APPARATUS   FOR  GERMINATING  SEEDS 


95 


Now  invert  the  second  plate  over  the  first,  being  careful  to 
have  the  edges  touch  evenly.  This  makes  a  moist  chamber, 
and  gives  the  most  favorable  conditions  for  germination. 

Similar  moist  chambers  may  be  fixed  up  by  using  any 
shallow  bucket  or  pan  having  a  cover,  or  tin  or  wooden 


Fig.  53.    A  corn  gerrninator.    The  six  grains  in  each  square  are  taken 
from  a  different  ear.    (Iowa  Bulletin  No.  77) 

boxes  may  be  used,  such  as  tobacco  and  cigar  boxes, 
all  of  which  when  used  properly  will  give  satisfactory 
results. 

The  accompanying  photograph  (Fig.  53)  illustrates  a  very 
handy  device  for  testing  individual  ears  of  seed  corn.  It  is 
made  about  two  inches  deep,  and  any  convenient  size.  Place 
in  the  bottom  some  absorbent  material  to  hold  the  moisture, 
—  an  inch  of  sawdust  or  sand,  or  a  few  lavers  of  cloth  or 


96  SEED  TESTING 

blotting  paper.  Whatever  is  used,  the  top  should  be  covered 
with  a  piece  of  white  blotting  paper  or  cloth.  Mark  this  off 
into  two-inch  squares  or  larger,  or  cover  with  a  piece  of 
wire  netting.  After  the  corn  grains  are  placed  on  the  cloth 
they  should  be  covered  with  cloth,  or  the  box  covered  with 
a  close-fitting  cover. 

A  STUDY  OF  THE  GERMINATION   OF   SEEDS 

(Prepared  by  A.  T.  Wiaucko,  Purdue  University) 

Use  seeds  and  boxes  provided.  Place  a  piece  of  blotting 
paper  in  the  bottom  of  each  box  and  have  a  second  piece  to 
cover  the  seeds.  Saturate  both  pieces  of  blotting  paper. 
Count  25  kernels  each  of  corn  and  wheat  and  place  in  one 
of  the  boxes.  Count  out  the  same  number  each  of  clover  and 
beans,  and  place  in  the  second  box.  Cover  these  seeds  with  the 
second  piece  of  blotting  paper.  Put  on  the  lid  and  set  aside. 
Examine  every  day  to  note  progress  of  germination  and 
condition  of  moisture. 

1.  What  is  the  first  act  in  the  process  of  germination  ? 

2.  Which  appears  first,  the  radicle  (root)  or  the  plumule 
(leaves)  ? 

3.  How  many  days  are  required  for  germination  \ 

4.  Is  there  any  difference  in  the  manner  in  which  the 
cotyledon  (seed)  is  disposed  after  germination  ?    Explain. 

5.  Two  modes  of  root  development :  axial,  the  radicle 
extending  into  a  taproot  with  more  or  less  branches ;  diffuse, 
no  evidence  of  taproot,  but  numerous  long,  slender  roots. 
Which  of  these  seeds  show  such  development?  Does  this 
teach  an}rthing  with  regard  to  soil  preparation  ? 

6.  Look  for  the  rootcap.    What  seems  to  be  its  office  ? 


PURE   AND  GERMINABLE  SEEDS  97 

7.  Observe  the  root  hairs.  What  do  you  conclude  their 
function  to  be  ?  Do  they  teach  anything  about  soil  prepa- 
ration I 

8.  Make  drawings  illustrating  different  stages  of  develop- 
ment and  showing  the  various  points  mentioned  above. 

9.  If  possible  try  the  germination  under  cooler  tempera- 
ture and  note  results. 


DETERMINING  THE   PURE  AND  GERMINABLE   SEEDS 
IN    A    SAMPLE   OF   CLOVER   SEED 

(Prepared  by  A.  T.  Wiancko,  Purdue  University) 

The  metal  capsule  furnished  has  one  gram  of  seed  in  it. 
Separate  this  sample  into  four  parts  :  (1)  pure  seed  that  from 
appearance  you  judge  would  grow;  (2)  pure  seed  that  from 
appearance  you  judge  would  not  grow;  (3)  weed  seeds; 
(4)  sticks,  chaff,  dirt,  etc. 

Count  the  seeds  in  each  division.  Find  what  per  cent 
eacli  is  of  the  total  number.  A  pound  contains  454.5 
grams.  Calculate  the  number  of  each  kind  of  seeds  in  a 
bushel. 

Put  the  seeds  in  each  of  the  above  divisions  into  a  moist 
chamber  and  give  them  the  germination  test.  Calculate  the 
per  cent  of  each  division  that  germinates.  How  does  it  com- 
pare with  the  mechanical  separation  ?  Calculate  what  per 
cent  the  seeds  germinating  in  classes  (1)  and  (2)  are  of  the 
total  number  of  seeds.  If  this  seed  sells  in  the  market  for 
$8.00  per  bushel,  what  is  the  actual  price  per  bushel  for  pure 
and  germinable  seed  ? 

A  written  report  is  requested  one  week  from  the  close  of 
the  experiment. 


98 


SEED   TESTING 


Suggested  Form  fob  Report 


2 
- 
s 

- 

fa 

s 

< 

DC 

Pure  Seed 

(Good  Appearance, 
Number) 

Germination 
(per  cent) 

r 
r. 

S    B 
D    0- 

Pure  Seed 
(Poor  Appearance, 

Number) 

2  ° 

5     £ 

3  8 
0 

5 

S3   g 

r. 

H 

IE 

05 

Total  Weight 

THAT   WILL  t.KOW 

(per  cent) 

fa   si 

o  w 

J     P 

S  « 

-   «    g 

1 

2 

8 

Name Date 


DETERMINATION   OF   WEIGHT   PER  BUSHEL 


Grain  testers  are  usually  made  in  three  sizes  —  pint,  quart, 
and  two-quart.  When  the  measure  is  properly  filled  with 
grain  and  hung  on  the  balance,  the  number  of  pounds  the 
grain  will  weigh  per  bushel  can  be  directly  read. 

The  greatest  care  must  be  exercised  in  tilling  the  measure. 
The  grain  should  not  be  shaken  or  pressed  down,  but  should 
be  allowed  to  fall  as  loosely  as  possible  into  the  tester.  Do 
not  dip  the  grain  up  with  the  measure,  but  take  the  measure 
in  both  hands  and  force  it  bottom  down  until  the  top  is  level 
with  the  grain;  then  scoop  the  grain  in  with  the  hands,  allow- 
ing it  to  fall  as  loosely  as  possible.  Then,  being  careful  not  to 
press  or  shake  down  the  grain,  stroke  the  top  with  a  straight- 
edge and  hang  on  the  balance. 

A  little  practice  will  enable  one  to  do  fairly  accurate  work 
with  the  tester. 


TEST  FOR  MOISTURE   IX  GRAIN  99 

Practice   Work  with  Testes 

Try  taking  duplicate  samples  until  you  can  get  the  same 
results  every  time. 

Fill  the  sampler  in  various  ways,  such  as  dipping  it  into 
the  grain,  or  shaking  and  pressing  the  grain  down  a  little 
after  the  tester  is  rilled,  and  compare  weights  with  those 
obtained  when  tester  is  properly  tilled. 

TEST    FOR   MOISTURE   IX   GRAIN 

Use  samples  of  corn  of  various  grades,  kept  under  different 
conditions,  such  as  corn  too  wet  to  grade,  corn  kept  in  open 
crib  since  husking,  corn  kept  in  dry  seed  room,  etc.  Also  use 
samples  of  oats,  wheat,  and  barley. 

Sampling.  After  mixing  up  your  sample  carefully,  take 
about  two  ounces  and  grind  in  a  tine  coffee  mill,  running  it 
through  several  times,  reducing  as  fine  as  possible.  Then 
take  a  1-gram  sample  and  dry  in  a  water  oven  to  constant 
weight.  The  per  cent  of  moisture  is  found  by  dividing  by 
weight  of  original  sample  the  difference  between  weight  of 
original  sample  and  dry  sample. 


100  SEED  TESTING 

LEGAL  WEIGHTS  PEE   BUSHEL  OF  SEEDS1 


-3 

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70 

75 

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56 

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32 

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Alabama     .... 

47 

60 

Arizona 

45 

<«;o 

600 

14 

48 

52 

GO 

70 

74 

54 
50 

331 

56 

Arkansas     .... 

4S 

California  .... 

50 

40 

52 

Colorado     .... 

48 

60 

14 

52 

60 

70 

5G 

44 

Connecticut    .    .    . 

48 

60 

48 

60 

50 

44 

30 

55 

Delaware     .... 

56 

Florida 

48 

60 

48 

70 

5G 

40 

32 

Georgia 

47 

660 

14 

52 

GO 

70 

50 

30 

56 

44 

Idaho 

48 

42 

GO 

50 

5G 

Illinois 

48 

''GO 

14 

52 

4G 

GO 

70 

50 

56 

tl 

Indiana 

48 

GO 

14 

50 

4G 

GO 

'•70 

50 

44 

Iowa 

48 

60 

14 

30 

52 

4G 

tat 

70 

50 

56 

U 

Kansas 

48 

GO 

14 

50 

46 

GO 

70 

50 

22 

:><; 

44 

Kentucky   .... 

47 

bQO 

14 

50 

45 

60 

(170 

5G 

14 

56 

n 

Louisiana    .... 

32 

62 

48 

50 
50 

Maine 

48 

.Maryland     .... 

Massachusetts     .     . 

48 

60 

48 

GO 

56 

44 

30 

55 

Michigan     .... 

48 

60 

14 

48 

4G 

60 

70 

56 

56 

44 

.Minnesota  .... 

48 

GO 

14 

~u 

50 

GO 

70 

5G 

50 

.Mississippi  .... 

48 

660 

14 

48 

4(5 

60 

72 

50 

32 

56 

14 

Missouri      .... 

-is 

60 

14 

52 

4G 

60 

70 

50 

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56 

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Montana      .... 

48 

GO 

14 

52 

60 

70 

56 

.-,c, 

44 

Nebraska    .... 

48 

660 

14 

52 

4G 

60 

70 

56 

56 

44 

New  Hampshire 

62 

50 

New  Jersey     .    .    . 

48 

GO 

50 

64 

50 

55 

New   York'.     .     .     . 

48 

60 

48 

GO 

50 

44 

30 

55 

North  Carolina  .     . 

48 

50 

GO 

50 

30 

55 

North  Dakota      .     . 

48 

60 

30 

42 

GO 

70 

56 

56 

Ohio 

48 

GO 

50 

GO 

68 

56 

56 

44 

Oklahoma  .... 

48 

GO 

30 

42 

GO 

70 

5G 

56 

Oregon    

40 

4'-' 

GO 

50 

Pennsylvania.     .     . 

47 

48 

GO 

5G 

Rhode  Island .     .     . 

48 

60 

48 

40 

GO 

70 

50 

44 

30 

56 

44 

South  Carolina  .    . 

42 

30 

South  Dakota      .     . 

48 

GO 

30 

42 

GO 

70 

56 

56 

Tennessee    .... 

48 

60 

14 

42 

50 

40 

60 

70 

74      .' 

28 

50 

44 

Texas      

48 

660 

42 

GO 

70 

72 

50 

32 

56 

44 

Vermont     .... 

48 

62 

48 

GO 

50 

Virginia 

48 

660 

14 

52 

60 

70 

56 

32 

60 

56 

44 

Washington    .     .    . 

48 

42 

GO 

50 

56 

West  Virginia     .    . 

48 

60 

52 

GO 

50 

50 

Wisconsin  .... 

48 

GO 

50 

60 

5G 

44 

30 

56 

44 

a  Small  w  bite  beans  60  pounds,  other  beans  55. 

I>  White  beans. 

e  From  harvest  to  December  1,  70  pounds;  after  December  1,  68  pounds. 

(I  From  November  1  to  May  l.  7(t  pounds  ;  from  May  1  to  November  1,  68  pounds. 

1  Experiment  Station  Work,Vo\.  II,  No.  16.    Compiled  from  Bulletin  51, 
United  States  Department  of  Agriculture,  Bureau  of  Plant  Industry. 


LEGAL  WEIGHTS  PER  BUSHEL  OF   SEEDS        101 
LEGAL  WEIGHTS  PER  BUSHEL  OF   SEEDS    {Continued) 


Stair  or  Territory 

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Alabama  .    .     .    . 

32 

60 

56 

60 

Arizona     .    .    .    . 

32 

56 

60 

Arkansas  .... 

50 

32 

14 

00 

14 

56 

50 

60 

60 

California      .     .     . 

32 

54 

60 

Colorado  .... 

32 

56 

45 

60 

Connecticut  .     .     . 

45 

32 

60 

45 

56 

45 

60 

Delaware  .... 

60 

Florida     .     .     .     . 

50 

32 

22 

50 

50 

78 

60 

Georgia     .     .    .     . 

32 

60 

43 

56 

45 

60 

Idaho    

36 

56 

60 

Illinois      .     .     .     . 

32 

56 

45 

60 

Indiana     .     .     .     . 

50 

32 

14 

33 

50 

45 

60 

Iowa 

50 

50 

32 

32 

56 

30 

45 

60 

Kansas      .     .     .     . 

50 

50 

32 

56 

50 

45 

60 

Kentucky     .    .    . 

50 

50 

32 

14 

60 

56 

45 

60 

Louisiana      .    .    . 

32 

32 

60 

Maine 

45 

32 

60 

60 

Maryland      .     .     . 

26 

Massachusetts  .     . 

45 

32 

60 

45 

56 

58 

45 

60 

Michigan  .    .    .    . 

50 

50 

32 

14 

33 

60 

14 

56 

45 

60 

Minnesota     .     .     . 

48 

48 

32 

14 

60 

r,o 

14 

56 

57 

45 

60 

Mississippi    .     .     . 

50 

50 

32 

60 

56 

42 

45 

60 

.Missouri    .     .     .     . 

4.X 

50 

32 

14 

36 

60 

11 

56 

42 

45 

GO 

Montana  .    .    .    . 

50 

32 

60 

56 

45 

GO 

Nebraska .... 

50 

50 

32 

32 

60 

56 

30 

45 

60 

New  Hampshire    . 

32 

60 

56 

60 

New  -Jersey  .     .     . 

30 

00 

56 

60 

New  York      .     .     . 

45 

32 

60 

15 

56 

45 

60 

North  Carolina     . 

32 

60 

14 

56 

60 

North  Dakota  .     . 

50 

32 

60 

56 

42 

60 

Ohio 

50 

50 

32 

60 

56 

45 

00 

Oklahoma     .     .     . 

32 

60 

56 

42- 

60 

Oregon  

32 

56 

00 

Pennsylvania    .     . 

32 

56 

60 

Rhode  Island    .     . 

50 

50 

32 

00 

56 

45 

60 

South  Carolina 

South  Dakota   .     . 

32 

60 

56 

42 

60 

Tennessee     .     .     . 

48 

20 

50 

32 

n 

33 

23 

60 

14 

50 

50 

45 

60 

Texas    

48 

50 

32 

56 

45 

60 

Vermont  .     .     .     . 

45 

32 

60 

56 

45 

60 

Virginia    .    .    .     . 

48 

50 

30 

14 

34 

22 

12 

56 

45 

60 

Washington      .    . 
West  Virginia  .     . 

32 

56 

60 

32 

50 

45 

60 

Wisconsin     .     .     . 

48 

50 

32 

60 

50 

45 

50 

45 

00 

Weight*  of  miscellaneous  seeds  not  included  in  the  table:  Amber  cane,  New 
Jersey,  57  pounds  per  bushel;  beggar  weed.  Florida,  62  pounds;  canary  seed, 
Tennessee,  00  pounds;  hickory  nuts,  Tennessee,  50  pounds;  Indian  wheat,  Ver- 
mont, 46  pounds;  Japanese  barnyard  millet,  Massachusetts,  35  pounds;  Johnson 
grass,  Arkansas,  28  pounds  ;  Kafir  corn,  Kansas,  56 pounds  ;  pop  corn  in  ear,  Indiana, 
70  pounds;  Ohio,  42  pounds;  Tennessee,  70  pounds;  pop  corn,  shelled,  Kansas,  56 
pounds;  spelt,  North  Dakota,  48  pounds;  velvet  grass,  Tennessee,  7  pounds ;  wal- 
nuts, Tennessee,  50  pounds. 


TLSwtOSkm 


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TYPES  AND  BREEDS  OF  FARM 
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By  CHARLES  SUMNER   PLUMB,  Professor  of  Animal  Husbandry  in  the 
College  of  Agriculture  of  the  Ohio  State  University 


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TYPES  AND  BREEDS  OF  FARM  ANIMALS 
supplies  the  need  for  an  up-to-date  discussion  of 
the  several  types  and  breeds  of  horses,  asses,  mules, 
cattle,  sheep,  goats,  and  swine.  This  volume  describes 
the  commonly  accepted  types,  as,  for  example,  draft  or 
speed  type  of  horse,  dairy  type  of  cattle,  and  bacon 
type  of  swine.  It  includes  discussions  of  the  original 
habitat,  breed  development,  European  history,  special 
American  history,  work  of  pioneer  breeders,  famous 
animals,  families,  or  tribes,  breed  characteristics,  breed 
and  individual  records  (as,  for  example,  milk  of  cows, 
butter,  or  speed  of  horses,  etc.).  Many  noteworthy 
records  are  given  and  numerous  illustrations  of  famous 
animals  shown.  A  comprehensive  table  of  contents 
and  an  index  form  an  important  part  of  the  book. 

The  work  is  primarily  intended  for  students  in  agri- 
cultural colleges  and  universities.  Breeders  and  feeders 
of  animals,  however,  will  find  this  volume  a  valuable 
reference  work. 


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